NOBEL PRIZES

The Nobel Prizes are international awards named after their founder, the Swedish chemical engineer A. B. Nobel. Awarded annually (since 1901) for outstanding work in the fields of physics, chemistry, medicine and physiology, economics (since 1969), for literary works, and for activities to strengthen peace. The awarding of Nobel Prizes is entrusted to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm (for physics, chemistry, economics), the Royal Karolinska Institute of Medicine and Surgery in Stockholm (for physiology or medicine) and the Swedish Academy in Stockholm (for literature); In Norway, the Nobel Committee of Parliament awards the Nobel Peace Prizes. Nobel Prizes are not awarded twice and posthumously.

Alferov Zhores Ivanovich(born March 15, 1930, Vitebsk, Byelorussian SSR, USSR) - Soviet and Russian physicist, Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for the development of semiconductor heterostructures and the creation of fast opto- and microelectronic components, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan (since 2004), foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. His research played a big role in computer science. Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, was the initiator of the establishment of the Global Energy Prize in 2002, until 2006 he headed the International Committee for its award. He is the rector-organizer of the new Academic University.

(1894-1984), Russian physicist, one of the founders of low temperature physics and physics of strong magnetic fields, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1939), twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1945, 1974). In 1921-34 on a scientific trip to Great Britain. Organizer and first director (1935-46 and since 1955) of the Institute of Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Discovered the superfluidity of liquid helium (1938). Developed a method for liquefying air using a turbo expander, a new type of powerful microwave generator. He discovered that a stable plasma filament with an electron temperature of 105-106 K is formed during a high-frequency discharge in dense gases. USSR State Prize (1941, 1943), Nobel Prize (1978). Lomonosov Gold Medal of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1959).

(b. 1922), Russian physicist, one of the founders of quantum electronics, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991; Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1966), twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1969, 1982). Graduated from the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (1950). Proceedings on semiconductor lasers, the theory of high-power pulses of solid-state lasers, quantum frequency standards, the interaction of high-power laser radiation with matter. He discovered the principle of generation and amplification of radiation by quantum systems. Developed the physical foundations of frequency standards. Author of a number of ideas in the field of semiconductor quantum generators. He studied the formation and amplification of powerful light pulses, the interaction of powerful light radiation with matter. Invented a laser method for heating plasma for thermonuclear fusion. Author of a series of studies of powerful gas quantum generators. He proposed a number of ideas on the use of lasers in optoelectronics. Created (together with A. M. Prokhorov) the first quantum generator based on a beam of ammonia molecules - a maser (1954). He proposed a method for creating three-level non-equilibrium quantum systems (1955), as well as the use of a laser in thermonuclear fusion (1961). Chairman of the Board of the All-Union Society "Knowledge" in 1978-90. Lenin Prize (1959), USSR State Prize (1989), Nobel Prize (1964, together with Prokhorov and C. Townes). Gold medal to them. M. V. Lomonosov (1990). Gold medal to them. A. Volta (1977).

PROKHOROV Alexander Mikhailovich(July 11, 1916, Atherton, Queensland, Australia - January 8, 2002, Moscow) - an outstanding Soviet physicist, one of the founders of the most important area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern physics - quantum electronics, Nobel Prize in Physics for 1964 (together with Nikolai Basov and Charles Towns ), one of the inventors of laser technology.

Prokhorov's scientific work is devoted to radiophysics, accelerator physics, radio spectroscopy, quantum electronics and its applications, and nonlinear optics. In his first works, he studied the propagation of radio waves along the earth's surface and in the ionosphere. After the war, he actively engaged in the development of methods for stabilizing the frequency of radio generators, which formed the basis of his PhD thesis. He proposed a new regime for the generation of millimeter waves in the synchrotron, established their coherent nature, and, based on the results of this work, defended his doctoral dissertation (1951).

Developing quantum frequency standards, Prokhorov, together with N. G. Basov, formulated the basic principles of quantum amplification and generation (1953), which was implemented when creating the first ammonia quantum generator (maser) (1954). In 1955 they proposed a three-level scheme for creating an inverse level population, which has found wide application in masers and lasers. The next few years were devoted to work on paramagnetic amplifiers in the microwave range, in which it was proposed to use a number of active crystals, such as ruby, a detailed study of the properties of which turned out to be extremely useful in creating a ruby ​​laser. In 1958, Prokhorov suggested using an open resonator to create quantum generators. For fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of a laser and a maser, Prokhorov and N. G. Basov were awarded the Lenin Prize in 1959, and in 1964, together with C. H. Townes, the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Since 1960, Prokhorov has created a number of lasers of various types: a laser based on two-quantum transitions (1963), a number of cw lasers and lasers in the IR region, and a powerful gas-dynamic laser (1966). He studied the nonlinear effects that arise during the propagation of laser radiation in a substance: the multifocal structure of wave beams in a nonlinear medium, the propagation of optical solitons in optical fibers, the excitation and dissociation of molecules under the action of IR radiation, laser generation of ultrasound, control of the properties of a solid body and laser plasma under the influence of light beams. These developments have found application not only for the industrial production of lasers, but also for the creation of systems for deep space communication, laser thermonuclear fusion, fiber-optic communication lines, and many others.

(1908-68), Russian theoretical physicist, founder of a scientific school, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1946), Hero of Socialist Labor (1954). Proceedings in many areas of physics: magnetism; superfluidity and superconductivity; physics of solid state, atomic nucleus and elementary particles, plasma physics; quantum electrodynamics; astrophysics, etc. Author of the classical course in theoretical physics (together with E. M. Lifshitz). Lenin Prize (1962), USSR State Prize (1946, 1949, 1953), Nobel Prize (1962).

(1904-90), Russian physicist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1970), Hero of Socialist Labor (1984). Experimentally discovered a new optical phenomenon (Cherenkov-Vavilov radiation). Proceedings on cosmic rays, accelerators. USSR State Prize (1946, 1952, 1977), Nobel Prize (1958, together with I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank).

Russian physicist, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1968). Graduated from Moscow University (1930). A student of S. I. Vavilov, in whose laboratory he began working while still a student, studying the quenching of luminescence in liquids.

After graduating from the university, he worked at the State Optical Institute (1930-34), in the laboratory of A. N. Terenin, studying photochemical reactions by optical methods. In 1934, at the invitation of S. I. Vavilov, he moved to the Physical Institute. P. N. Lebedev Academy of Sciences of the USSR (FIAN), where he worked until 1978 (from 1941 head of the department, from 1947 - laboratory). In the early 30s. on the initiative of S. I. Vavilov, he began to study the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, in particular, the phenomenon of the creation of electron-positron pairs by gamma quanta, discovered shortly before this. In 1937, together with I. E. Tamm, he performed a classic work on the explanation of the Vavilov-Cherenkov effect. During the war years, when FIAN was evacuated to Kazan, I. M. Frank was engaged in research on the applied significance of this phenomenon, and in the mid-forties he was actively involved in work related to the need to solve the atomic problem as soon as possible. In 1946 he organized the laboratory of the atomic nucleus of the Lebedev Physical Institute. At this time, Frank was the organizer and director of the Laboratory of Neutron Physics of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (since 1947), head of the Laboratory of the Institute for Nuclear Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences, professor at Moscow University (since 1940) and head. laboratory of radioactive radiation of the Scientific Research Physics Institute of Moscow State University (1946-1956).

The main works in the field of optics, neutron and nuclear physics of low energies. He developed the theory of Cherenkov-Vavilov radiation on the basis of classical electrodynamics, showing that the source of this radiation is electrons moving at a speed greater than the phase velocity of light (1937, together with I. E. Tamm). Investigated the features of this radiation.

He built the theory of the Doppler effect in a medium, taking into account its refractive properties and dispersion (1942). Constructed a theory of the anomalous Doppler effect in the case of a superluminal source velocity (1947, together with VL Ginzburg). He predicted transition radiation arising when a moving charge passes a flat interface between two media (1946, together with VL Ginzburg). He studied the formation of pairs by gamma quanta in krypton and nitrogen, obtained the most complete and correct comparison of theory and experiment (1938, together with L. V. Groshev). In the mid 40s. carried out extensive theoretical and experimental studies of neutron multiplication in heterogeneous uranium-graphite systems. Developed a pulsed method for studying the diffusion of thermal neutrons.

Found the dependence of the average diffusion coefficient on the geometric parameter (diffusion cooling effect) (1954). Developed a new method of neutron spectroscopy.

He was the initiator of the study of short-lived quasi-stationary states and nuclear fission under the action of mesons and high-energy particles. He performed a number of experiments on the study of reactions on light nuclei, in which neutrons are emitted, the interaction of fast neutrons with the nuclei of tritium, lithium and uranium, the fission process. He took part in the construction and launch of pulsed fast neutron reactors IBR-1 (1960) and IBR-2 (1981). Created a school of physics. Nobel Prize (1958). State Prizes of the USSR (1946, 1954, 1971). Gold medal of S. I. Vavilov (1980).

(1895-1971), Russian theoretical physicist, founder of a scientific school, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1953), Hero of Socialist Labor (1953). Proceedings on quantum theory, nuclear physics (the theory of exchange interactions), radiation theory, solid state physics, elementary particle physics. One of the authors of the Cherenkov radiation theory is Vavilova. In 1950, he proposed (together with AD Sakharov) the use of heated plasma placed in a magnetic field to obtain a controlled thermonuclear reaction. Author of the textbook "Fundamentals of the Theory of Electricity". State Prize of the USSR (1946, 1953). Nobel Prize (1958, together with I. M. Frank and P. A. Cherenkov). Gold medal to them. Lomonosov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1968).

LAUREATES OF THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSICS

1901 Roentgen W.K. (Germany) Discovery of "x"-rays (X-rays)

1902 Zeeman P., Lorenz H. A. (Netherlands) Investigation of the splitting of spectral lines of atomic radiation when a radiation source is placed in a magnetic field

1903 Becquerel A. A. (France) Discovery of natural radioactivity

1903 Curie P., Sklodowska-Curie M. (France) Study of the phenomenon of radioactivity discovered by A. A. Becquerel

1904 Strett [Lord Rayleigh (Reilly)] JW (UK) Discovery of argon

1905 Lenard F. E. A. (Germany) Investigation of cathode rays

1906 Thomson JJ (Great Britain) Study of electrical conductivity of gases

1907 Michelson A. A. (USA) Creation of high-precision optical devices; spectroscopic and metrological studies

1908 Lipman G. (France) Discovery of color photography

1909 Braun C. F. (Germany), Marconi G. (Italy) Works in the field of wireless telegraph

1910 Waals (van der Waals) J. D. (Netherlands) Research of the equation of state of gases and liquids

1911 Win W. (Germany) Discoveries in the field of thermal radiation

1912 Dalen N. G. (Sweden) Invention of a device for automatic ignition and extinguishing of lighthouses and luminous buoys

1913 Kamerling-Onnes H. (Netherlands) Study of the properties of matter at low temperatures and the production of liquid helium

1914 Laue M. von (Germany) Discovery of X-ray diffraction by crystals

1915 Bragg W. G., Bragg W. L. (Great Britain) Investigation of the structure of crystals using X-rays

1916 Not awarded

1917 Barkla C. (Great Britain) Discovery of the characteristic X-ray emission of the elements

1918 Planck M.K. (Germany) Merits in the field of development of physics and the discovery of discreteness of radiation energy (quantum of action)

1919 Stark J. (Germany) Discovery of the Doppler effect in canal beams and splitting of spectral lines in electric fields

1920 Guillaume (Guillaume) C. E. (Switzerland) Creation of iron-nickel alloys for metrological purposes

1921 Einstein A. (Germany) Contribution to theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect

1922 Bohr N.H.D. (Denmark) Merits in the field of studying the structure of the atom and the radiation emitted by it

1923 Milliken R. E. (USA) Work on the determination of the elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect

1924 Sigban K. M. (Sweden) Contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy

1925 Hertz G., Frank J. (Germany) Discovery of the laws of the collision of an electron with an atom

1926 J. B. Perrin (France) Works on the discrete nature of matter, in particular for the discovery of sedimentary equilibrium

1927 Wilson C.T.R. (Great Britain) Method for Visual Observation of Trajectories of Electrically Charged Particles Using Vapor Condensation

1927 Compton A. H. (USA) Discovery of changing the wavelength of X-rays, scattering by free electrons (Compton effect)

1928 Richardson O. W. (Great Britain) Study of thermionic emission (dependence of emission current on temperature - Richardson formula)

1929 Broglie L. de (France) Discovery of the wave nature of the electron

1930 Raman C. V. (India) Work on light scattering and the discovery of Raman scattering of light (Raman effect)

1931 Not awarded

1932 Heisenberg W.K. (Germany) Participation in the creation of quantum mechanics and its application to the prediction of two states of the hydrogen molecule (ortho- and parahydrogen)

1933 Dirac P. A. M. (Great Britain), Schrödinger E. (Austria) The discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory, that is, the creation of the equations of quantum mechanics

1934 Not awarded

1935 Chadwick J. (Great Britain) Discovery of the neutron

1936 Anderson K. D. (USA) Discovery of the positron in cosmic rays

1936 Hess W. F. (Austria) Discovery of cosmic rays

1937 Davisson K. J. (USA), Thomson J. P. (UK) Experimental discovery of electron diffraction in crystals

1938 Fermi E. (Italy) Evidence for the existence of new radioactive elements obtained by irradiation with neutrons, and the related discovery of nuclear reactions caused by slow neutrons

1939 Lawrence E. O. (USA) Invention and creation of the cyclotron

1940-42 Not awarded

1943 Stern O. (USA) Contribution to the development of the molecular beam method and the discovery and measurement of the magnetic moment of the proton

1944 Rabi I. A. (USA) Resonance method for measuring the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei

1945 Pauli W. (Switzerland) Discovery of the prohibition principle (Pauli principle)

1946 Bridgman P. W. (USA) Discoveries in the field of high pressure physics

1947 Appleton E. W. (Great Britain) Study of the physics of the upper atmosphere, the discovery of a layer of the atmosphere that reflects radio waves (the Appleton layer)

1948 Blackett P.M.S. (Great Britain) Improvement of the cloud chamber method and discoveries made in connection with this in the field of nuclear physics and cosmic ray physics

1949 Yukawa H. (Japan) Prediction of the existence of mesons based on theoretical work on nuclear forces

1950 Powell S. F. (Great Britain) Development of a photographic method for the study of nuclear processes and the discovery of -mesons based on this method

1951 Cockcroft J.D., Walton E.T.S. (Great Britain) Investigations of transformations of atomic nuclei with the help of artificially accelerated particles

1952 Bloch F., Purcell E. M. (USA) Development of new methods for accurate measurement of the magnetic moments of atomic nuclei and related discoveries

1953 Zernike F. (Netherlands) Creation of the phase-contrast method, invention of the phase-contrast microscope

1954 Born M. (Germany) Fundamental research in quantum mechanics, statistical interpretation of the wave function

1954 Bothe W. (Germany) Development of a method for registering coincidences (the act of emitting a radiation quantum and an electron during X-ray quantum scattering on hydrogen)

1955 Kush P. (USA) Accurate determination of the magnetic moment of an electron

1955 W. Y. Lamb (USA) Discovery in the fine structure region of hydrogen spectra

1956 Bardeen J., Brattain W., Shockley W. B. (USA) Semiconductor research and the discovery of the transistor effect

1957 Li (Li Zongdao), Yang (Yang Zhenning) (USA) The study of the so-called conservation laws (the discovery of parity nonconservation in weak interactions), which led to important discoveries in elementary particle physics

1958 Tamm I. E., Frank I. M., Cherenkov P. A. (USSR) Discovery and creation of the theory of the Cherenkov effect

1959 Segre E., Chamberlain O. (USA) Discovery of the antiproton

1960 Glazer D. A. (USA) Invention of the bubble chamber

1961 Mössbauer R. L. (Germany) Research and discovery of resonant absorption of gamma radiation in solids (Mössbauer effect)

1961 R. Hofstadter (USA) Investigations of electron scattering on atomic nuclei and related discoveries in the field of nucleon structure

1962 Landau L. D. (USSR) Theory of condensed matter (especially liquid helium)

1963 Wigner Y. P. (USA) Contribution to the theory of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles

1963 Goeppert-Mayer M. (USA), Jensen J. H. D. (Germany) Discovery of the shell structure of the atomic nucleus

1964 Basov N. G., Prokhorov A. M. (USSR), Towns C. H. (USA) Work in the field of quantum electronics, which led to the creation of generators and amplifiers based on the principle of a maser-laser

1965 Tomonaga S. (Japan), Feynman R. F., Schwinger J. (USA) Fundamental work on the creation of quantum electrodynamics (with important implications for elementary particle physics)

1966 Kastler A. (France) Creation of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms

1967 Bethe H. A. (USA) Contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially for discoveries concerning the energy sources of stars

1968 Alvarez L. W. (USA) Contributions to particle physics, including the discovery of many resonances using a hydrogen bubble chamber

1969 Gell-Man M. (USA) Discoveries related to the classification of elementary particles and their interactions (the quark hypothesis)

1970 Alven H. (Sweden) Fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics and its applications in various fields of physics

1970 Neel L. E. F. (France) Fundamental works and discoveries in the field of antiferromagnetism and their application in solid state physics

1971 Gabor D. (Great Britain) Invention (1947-48) and development of holography

1972 Bardeen J., Cooper L., Schrieffer J. R. (USA) Creation of the microscopic (quantum) theory of superconductivity

1973 Giever A. (USA), Josephson B. (Great Britain), Esaki L. (USA) Research and application of the tunnel effect in semiconductors and superconductors

1974 Ryle M., Hewish E. (Great Britain) Pioneering work in radio astrophysics (particularly aperture synthesis)

1975 Bohr O., Mottelson B. (Denmark), Rainwater J. (USA) Development of the so-called generalized model of the atomic nucleus

1976 Richter B., Ting S. (USA) Contribution to the discovery of a new type of heavy elementary particle (gipsy particle)

1977 Anderson F., Van Vleck J. H. (USA), Mott N. (Great Britain) Fundamental research in the field of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems

1978 Wilson R. V., Penzias A. A. (USA) Discovery of microwave background radiation

1978 Kapitsa P. L. (USSR) Fundamental discoveries in low temperature physics

1979 Weinberg (Weinberg) S., Glashow S. (USA), Salam A. (Pakistan) Contribution to the theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles (the so-called electroweak interaction)

1980 Cronin J.W, Fitch W.L. (USA) Discovery of violation of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons

1981 Blombergen N., Shavlov A. L. (USA) Development of laser spectroscopy

1982 Wilson K. (USA) Development of the theory of critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions

1983 Fowler W. A., Chandrasekhar S. (USA) Works in the field of the structure and evolution of stars

1984 Meer (Van der Meer) S. (Netherlands), Rubbia K. (Italy) Contribution to research in the field of high energy physics and to the theory of elementary particles [discovery of intermediate vector bosons (W, Z0)]

1985 Klitzing C. (Germany) Discovery of the “quantum Hall effect”

1986 Binnig G. (Germany), Rohrer G. (Switzerland), Ruska E. (Germany) Creation of a scanning tunneling microscope

1987 Bednorz J. G. (Germany), Müller K. A. (Switzerland) Discovery of new (high-temperature) superconducting materials

1988 Lederman L. M., Steinberger J., Schwartz M. (USA) Evidence for the existence of two types of neutrinos

1989 Demelt H. J. (USA), Paul W. (Germany) Development of the method of confining a single ion in a trap and precision high-resolution spectroscopy

1990 Kendall G. (USA), Taylor R. (Canada), Friedman J. (USA) Fundamental research important for the development of the quark model

1991 De Gennes P.J. (France) Advances in the description of molecular ordering in complex condensed systems, especially in liquid crystals and polymers

1992 Charpak J. (France) Contribution to the development of elementary particle detectors

1993 Taylor J. (Jr.), Huls R. (USA) For the discovery of binary pulsars

1994 Brockhouse B. (Canada), Shull K. (USA) Technology for the study of materials by bombardment with neutron beams

1995 Pearl M., Raines F. (USA) For experimental contributions to elementary particle physics

1996 Lee D., Osheroff D., Richardson R. (USA) For the discovery of the superfluidity of the helium isotope

1997 Chu S., Phillips W. (USA), Cohen-Tanuji K. (France) For the development of methods for cooling and capturing atoms using laser radiation.

1998 Robert Betts Laughlin(Eng. Robert Betts Laughlin; November 1, 1950, Visalia, USA) - professor of physics and applied physics at Stanford University, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998, together with H. Stormer and D. Tsui, "for the discovery of a new form quantum liquid with excitations having a fractional electric charge.

1998 Horst Ludwig Störmer(German Horst Ludwig St?rmer; born April 6, 1949, Frankfurt am Main) - German physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 (together with Robert Laughlin and Daniel Tsui) "for the discovery of a new form of quantum liquid with excitations having a fractional electric charge.

1998 De Niel Chi Tsui(Eng. Daniel Chee Tsui, pinyin Cu? Q?, pall. Cui Qi, born February 28, 1939, Henan Province, China) is an American physicist of Chinese origin. He was engaged in research in the field of electrical properties of thin films, the microstructure of semiconductors and solid state physics. Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 (together with Robert Loughlin and Horst Sterner) "for the discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with excitations having a fractional electric charge."

1999 Gerard "t Hooft(Dutch. Gerardus (Gerard) "t Hooft, born July 5, 1946, Helder, Netherlands), professor at Utrecht University (Netherlands), Nobel Prize in Physics for 1999 (together with Martinus Veltman). "t Hooft, together with his teacher Martinus Veltman developed a theory that helped elucidate the quantum structure of electroweak interactions. This theory was created in the 1960s by Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg, who proposed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are manifestations of a single electroweak force. But applying the theory to calculate the properties of the particles it predicted has been fruitless. The mathematical methods developed by "t Hooft and Veltman made it possible to predict some effects of the electroweak interaction, made it possible to estimate the masses W and Z of intermediate vector bosons predicted by the theory. The obtained values ​​are in good agreement with the experimental values. Using the method of Veltman and "t Hooft, the top quark mass experimentally discovered in 1995 at the National Laboratory. E. Fermi (Fermilab, USA).

1999 Martinus Veltman(born June 27, 1931, Walwijk, the Netherlands) is a Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1999 (together with Gerard 't Hooft). Veltman worked with his student, Gerard 't Hooft, on a mathematical formulation of gauge theories, the theory of renormalization. In 1977, he succeeded in predicting the mass of the top quark, which was an important step towards its discovery in 1995. In 1999, Veltman, together with Gerard 't Hooft, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions" .

2000 Zhores Ivanovich Alferov(born March 15, 1930, Vitebsk, Byelorussian SSR, USSR) - Soviet and Russian physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 for the development of semiconductor heterostructures and the creation of fast opto- and microelectronic components, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan (since 2004), foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. His research played a big role in computer science. Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, was the initiator of the establishment of the Global Energy Prize in 2002, until 2006 he headed the International Committee for its award. He is the rector-organizer of the new Academic University.

2000 Herbert Kroemer(German Herbert Kr?mer; born August 25, 1928, Weimar, Germany) - German physicist, Nobel Prize winner in physics. Half of the prize for 2000, together with Zhores Alferov, "for the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-frequency and opto-electronics." The second half of the prize was awarded to Jack Kilby "for his contributions to the invention of the integrated circuit".

2000 Jack Kilby(Eng. Jack St. Clair Kilby, November 8, 1923, Jefferson City - June 20, 2005, Dallas) - American scientist. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his invention of the integrated circuit in 1958 while at Texas Instruments (TI). He is also the inventor of the pocket calculator and thermal printer (1967).

In the final year of the 20th century, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for discoveries in neurophysiology, a science whose modern achievements help to better understand how organisms interact with the environment. Laureates - Arvid Karlsson (Arvid Carlsson), Paul Greengard (Paul Greengard) and Eric Kandel (Eric Kandel) - almost half a century trying to unravel the processes occurring in the brain. As a result, new drugs have been obtained to combat diseases of the nervous system.
There are over a hundred billion nerve cells in the human brain. And they are all connected. Information from one of them to another is transmitted by chemicals (mediators) at special contact points (synapses), of which the cell has thousands. The discoveries of the laureates helped to realize that failures in such (synaptic) transmission can lead to
to neurological and psychiatric diseases. Arvid Karlsson, professor of pharmacology at the University of Gothenburg (Sweden), established back in the 1950s that the neurohormone dopamine is a mediator and is localized in the basal ganglia of the brain, which control limb movements. Experiments on mice that lost the ability to control their movements with a lack of dopamine led the scientist to conjecture that the terrible Parkinson's disease in humans is due to the same reasons. The lack of dopamine in the body can be eliminated by introducing an isomer of dopamine - levodopa. “Parkinson's disease is deadly,” says Ralph Patterson, chairman of the Nobel committee at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, “but today millions are fighting it with levodopa. It's almost magic!" Carlsson's research led to the creation of drugs (in particular, Prozac), which are successfully used to treat depression. Biochemist Paul Greengard, head of the Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience at Rockefeller University in New York, is credited for discovering the mechanism of action of dopamine and a number of other neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission. Acting on the cell membrane receptor, the mediator triggers phosphorylation reactions of specific "key" proteins. Altered proteins, in turn, form ion channels in the membrane, through which signals are transmitted. Various ion channels of the cell determine its responses to influences.
Synaptic transmission is especially important for speech, movement, and sensory perception. Greengard's work has led to a better understanding of the mechanism of action of many well-known drugs and the development of new ones. Upon learning of his Nobel Prize, Greengard joked: "We worked for so many years without any competition, because we were considered not quite normal." But on the other hand, he quite seriously intends to transfer his part of the award to the university fund to encourage women working in biomedicine.
Eric Kandel, a professor at Columbia University (also in New York), has found a way to change the efficiency of synapses. He sought to understand how protein phosphorylation at synapses affects learning and memory. “We become ourselves by learning and remembering. We are influenced by life experiences that can traumatize,” he notes. His interest in the mechanisms of memory developed under his impressions of the war, when in 1939 the family of 9-year-old Eric left his native Vienna, fleeing the Nazis. “Understanding what happens to the human brain when he has experienced events that are engraved in his memory for life is the most important task,” he believes.

In the nervous system of the gastropod mollusk Aplysia, on which Kandel studied the mechanisms of learning and memory in animals, there are only 20 thousand cells. Its simple protective reflex, protecting the gills, was fixed by certain stimuli for several days. Kandel showed that changes in synapses are the basis of memory. A weak external influence formed a short-term memory - for tens of minutes. In the cell, memorization begins with the phosphorylation of proteins in synapses described by Greengard, which leads to an excess of the neurotransmitter in them and enhances the reflex. For the development of long-term memory, which sometimes persists until the end of the life of the organism, stronger and more prolonged stimuli are usually needed. At the same time, new proteins are synthesized in the synapse. If these proteins are not produced, there is no long-term memory. Kandel concluded that memory is actually concentrated in synapses. In the 1990s, he reproduced his work with Aplysia on mice, which, like humans, belong to the class of mammals, and became convinced that the described processes are also characteristic of our nervous system. These studies, which have become classics of neurophysiology, provided the key to the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other diseases associated with memory loss. Kandel himself, who found, as his colleagues say, "the physical embodiment of memory", is very modest: "There is a huge distance from my work to clinical return."

Combining the incompatible
The 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery and study of electrically conductive polymers was shared by American researchers Alan J. Heeger, professor of physics and director of the Institute of Polymers and Organic Liquids at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and Alan G. MacDiarmid ), professor of chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, and Japanese scientist Hideki Shirakawa, professor of chemistry at the Institute of Materials Science at the University of Tsukuba. The laureates made this discovery over 20 years ago, but only now the world scientific community has been able to appreciate its outstanding significance.

Every student knows that polymers, unlike metals, do not conduct electricity. However, the new Nobel laureates have proved that this is not the case. As if developing the thesis that nothing is impossible for science, they combined incompatible properties in one material. How are conducting polymers synthesized? The main merit of the laureates was that they "guessed" the structure of the organic conductor molecule. Such a molecule should consist of carbon atoms connected in turn by single and double chemical bonds. In addition, the so-called "potentially charged groups" must be present in it. For example, if a functional group is introduced into such a molecule, which easily partes with its electrons, many free charge carriers are formed in the polymer. And then this polymer will conduct current almost as well as aluminum or copper that we are used to.
Conductive polymers are widely used in various fields: they are used to make an antistatic substrate for photo, video and other films, protective screens for monitors (for example, in personal computers), "smart" windows that selectively filter solar radiation. Recently, they have been used in LEDs, solar panels, mini-TV screens and mobile phones. Even more exciting are the prospects - based on electrically conductive polymers, scientists hope to create "molecular transistors" that will allow in the near future to "squeeze" supercomputers that now occupy huge cabinets into wristwatches or jewelry.

Materials that changed the world

Finally, the achievements of Russian science are appreciated by the world scientific community. The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2000 was awarded to the Vice-President of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Chairman of the Presidium of the St. Petersburg Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Director of the V.I. A.F. Ioffe RAS, Academician Zhores Ivanovich Alferov.

Awarding the Nobel Prize to Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Zh.I. Alferov, in the opinion of many Russian scientists, should change the attitude towards science in the country, contribute to raising its status and, most importantly, provide it with decent state support. Zh.I. Alferov shared the prize with American colleagues Herbert Kroemer, professor of physics at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and Jack S. Kilby of Texas Instruments in Dallas. This is how their contribution to the creation of fundamentally new semiconductor materials, which have become the basis of modern computers, information technologies and electronics, is appreciated. The highest scientific award was awarded for the discovery and development of opto- and microelectronic elements, the so-called semiconductor heterostructures - multilayer components of high-speed diodes and transistors (the most important components of electronic devices).
G. Kremer in 1957 developed a transistor based on heterostructures. Six years later, he and Zh.I. Alferov independently proposed the principles that formed the basis for the design of a heterostructure laser. In the same year, Alferov patented his famous optical injection quantum generator. J. Kilby made a huge contribution to the creation of integrated circuits.

The fundamental works of the laureates made it fundamentally possible to create fiber-optic communications, including the Internet. Laser diodes based on heterostructure technology can be found in CD players, barcode readers and many other devices that have become integral attributes of our everyday life. High-speed transistors are used in satellite communications and mobile phones.

List of used literature :

Journal "Ecology and Life". Article Yu.N. Yeldysheva, E.V. Sidorov.

The Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 was awarded to the Russian scientist Academician Zhores Ivanovich Alferov

Nobel Prize

in physics in 2000 was awarded to the Russian scientist academician Zhores Ivanovich Alferov.

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2000 to researchers whose work on the creation of high-speed transistors, lasers and integrated circuits (chips) formed the basis of modern information technology: Zhores Ivanovich Alferov (Physico-Technical Institute named after A.F. .Ioffe, St. Petersburg, Russia) and Herbert Kremer (California Institute in Santa Barbara, USA) for the development of the physics of semiconductor heterostructures for high-frequency technology and optoelectronics and Jack S. Kilby (Dallas, Texas, USA) for his contribution to the discovery of the integrated circuit .

Modern information systems must be compact and fast in order to transmit as much information as possible in a short period of time. The Nobel laureates of 2000 are the founders of modern technology to meet these conditions.

Zh.I. Alferov and G. Kremer discovered and created high-speed opto- and microelectronic devices based on semiconductor heterostructures: high-speed transistors, laser diodes for information transmission systems in fiber optic networks, powerful efficient light-emitting diodes that can replace incandescent lamps in the future, etc. .d.

Most semiconductor devices are based on the use of a p-n junction, which is formed at the boundary between parts of the same semiconductor with different types of conductivity (electronic and hole), created by the introduction of appropriate impurities. A heterojunction is a contact between two semiconductors of different chemical composition with different band gaps. The implementation of heterojunctions made it possible to create electronic and optoelectronic devices of extremely small sizes up to atomic scales.

For many years, attempts to obtain a sufficiently perfect heterojunction were unsuccessful. To create a heterojunction close to ideal, it was necessary to choose two different semiconductors with almost the same dimensions of the unit cells of the crystal lattices. It was Zh.I. Alferov who managed to solve this problem. He created a heterojunction from semiconductors with close lattice periods - Ga Az and a ternary compound of a certain composition A lG aA s . Here is how Academician B.P. Zakharchenya recalls this period of Zh.I. Alferov’s work. “I remember these searches (search for a suitable heteropair) well. They reminded me of Stefan Zweig's story, The Feat of Magellan, which I loved in my youth. When I visited Alferov in his small working room, it was all littered with rolls of millimeter paper, on which the indefatigable Zhores drew diagrams from morning to evening in search of mating crystal lattices ... After Zhores and a team of his employees made the first heterojunction laser , he told me: “Borya, I am heterojunction of all semiconductor microelectronics!”.

The development of technology for obtaining heterojunctions by epitaxial growth of a crystalline film of one semiconductor on the surface of another has led to further miniaturization of devices up to nanometer sizes and to the creation of low-dimensional structures that have one size (quantum wells, multiple quantum wells, superlattices), two (quantum wires) or all three (quantum dots) are comparable to the de Broglie wavelength of an electron in a semiconductor. Zh.I. Alferov was one of the first to appreciate the unusual properties and prospects of using nanostructures and led research in this area in Russia. Under his leadership, the program "Physics of Solid State Nanostructures" is successfully developing, in which many members of our faculty participate.

The Russian scientific community received with great joy the news of the award of the Nobel Prize to Zhores Ivanovich Alferov. I would like to wish him new creative achievements and victory in the struggle for the preservation and prosperity of science in Russia.

V.S. Dneprovsky, I.P. Zvyagin

Arvid Karlsson.

Paul Greengard.

Eric Kandel.

The structure of a synaptic plaque is a contact between two neurons.

The nervous system of the Aplysia mollusk consists of only 20 thousand neurons, so it is convenient to study the processes of memorization on it.

The Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine for 2000 were awarded to the Swede Arvid Karlsson and Americans Paul Greengard And Eric Kandel. Their work made it possible to understand how signals are transmitted in the nervous system from one neuron to another. This process occurs in the places of their contact - the so-called synapses. The long process of one neuron ends on the body of another with an extension - a plaque in which intermediary substances are constantly produced. When a nerve signal arrives through the process, these substances, which accumulate in microscopic vesicles, are released into the gap between the plaque and the receiving neuron, and open channels for ions in the membrane of the latter. The flow of ions between the interior of the neuron and the environment begins, which is the essence of the nerve impulse.

Arvid Karlsson, who works at the Department of Pharmacology at the University of Gothenburg, discovered that dopamine is an important intermediary substance for brain function (before his research, it was believed that dopamine was used in the body only as a semi-finished product for the manufacture of another well-known intermediary, norepinephrine). This discovery led to the development of drugs for the treatment of nervous diseases associated with insufficient production of dopamine in the brain, such as Parkinson's disease.

Paul Greengard, an employee of the Rockefeller University in New York, revealed the details of the process of transmission of a nerve impulse through the synapse using intermediaries. He showed that dopamine, having entered the synaptic cleft, leads to an increase in the concentration of another mediator - cyclic adenosine monophosphate, and it, in turn, activates a special enzyme whose task is to attach phosphate groups to the molecules of certain proteins (phosphorylate proteins). The ion channels in the neuron membrane are plugged with plugs made of a special protein. When phosphate is attached to the molecules of this protein, they change shape and holes appear in the plugs, allowing ions to move. It turned out that many other processes in the nerve cell are controlled precisely through the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins.

Eric Kandel, a native of Austria, working at Columbia University (USA), studying the memory of the tropical sea mollusk Aplysia, discovered that the mechanism of phosphorylation of proteins that control the movement of ions through the membrane, discovered by Greengard, is also involved in the formation of memory. Subsequently, Kandel showed that short-term memory is based on a change in the shape of proteins upon the addition of phosphate, and long-term memory is based on the synthesis of new proteins. Recently, Eric Kandel created a pharmaceutical company that will develop memory-enhancing drugs based on his discoveries.

About the Nobel Prize winners in physics - Zh. I. Alferov, T. Kroemer and D.-S. Kilby - can be read in the journal "Science and Life" No. 12, 2000

2000 James Heckman, Daniel McFadden were awarded "For the development of the theory and methods of discrete choice analysis".

James Heckman- American economist. Born April 19, 1944 in Chicago. He graduated from Princeton University in 1968. He worked at New York and Columbia Universities, at the National Bureau of Economic Research and at the RAND Corporation. Since 1973 he worked at the University of Chicago, after 1977 as a professor.

Heckman's works are devoted to labor resources, population, "human capital", public policy, methods of statistical analysis of microeconomic data, in particular, the formation of a statistical sample.

Main works:

• 1. "Longitudinal analysis of the labor market" (1985, together with B. Singer);
• 2. Evaluation of Social Programs: Methodological and Empirical Lessons from the Phototype Curriculum (2000);
• 3. “Incentives for State Bureaucracy: Can Bureaucratic Incentives Promote Market Efficiency” (2001)

Daniel L. McFadden- American economist. Born July 29, 1937 in Raleigh, North Carolina.

Studied at the University of Minnesota. PhD from the University of Chicago. Worked at the University of California (Berkeley) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

President of the Econometric Society (1985) and the American Economic Association (2005).

He was awarded the J. B. Clark (1975) and Frisch (1986) medals. He donated his portion of the Nobel Prize to the East Gulf Society Foundation to support education and the arts.

2001 George Akerlof, Michael Spence, Joseph Stiglitz received the award "For the study of markets with asymmetric information." The paper considers markets in which some actors have more information than others. The general theory of such markets was laid down by the current laureates back in the 1970s. last century.

George Akerlof- American economist. Born June 17, 1940 in New Haven, pc. Connecticut (USA). He studied at Yale University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (where he received his doctorate). He has taught at the London School of Economics and at the University of California at Berkeley. He is on the editorial board of Kyklos and the Journal of Applied Economics. President of the American Economic Association (2006).

Akerlof is known for his research on the labor market and especially on non-market wages. These theories underlie the neo-Keynesian school of macroeconomics.

Unlike many of his colleagues who focused on a narrow area of ​​scientific research, D. Akerlof has a very wide range of scientific interests. He seeks to connect economics with sociology, psychology, anthropology and other social sciences. Among dozens of articles he wrote, one can find studies on the economic analysis of poverty, national discrimination, the Indian caste system, crime, monetary policy, labor markets, and so on.

Main works:

"Interview with George Akerlof // Economic Sociology." Volume 3, No. 4, 2002;

"The Lemon Market: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism" (1994)

"An Economic Theorist's Book of Tales". Cambridge University Press, 1984

2002 Daniel Kahneman, Vernon Smith received the award "For research in the field of decision making and mechanisms of alternative markets." for research in the psychology of decision making and alternative market mechanisms.

Daniel Kahneman of Princeton University was awarded the prize for "the application of psychological methodology to economics, especially in the study of human factors and decision making under uncertainty." Vernon Smith of George Mason University used laboratory experiments as "a tool for concrete economic analysis, in particular for the study of alternative market mechanisms"

Daniel Kahneman- Israeli-American psychologist. Born March 5, 1934 in Tel Aviv. In 1954 He received his bachelor's degree in mathematics and psychology from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Works at Princeton University, as well as at the Hebrew University. He is on the editorial board of the journal Economics and Philosophy.

Kahneman is one of the founders of psychological economics and behavioral finance, which combine economics and cognitive science to explain the irrationality of a person's attitude to risk in decision making and in managing their behavior. He is famous for his work, jointly done by Amos Tversky and others, in establishing a cognitive basis for common human fallacies in the use of heuristics, and in developing prospect theory.

Main works:

“Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica» Kahneman D., Tversky A. (1979)

"Advances in prospect theory: cumulative representation of uncertainty" Journal of Risk and Uncertainty. Tversky A., Kahneman D. (1992)

Vernon Lomax Smith- American economist. Born January 1, 1927 in Wichita, pc. Kansas. Studied at the University of Kansas. He received his doctorate from Harvard. He has taught at Purdue University, George Mason University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, George Mason University; employee of the Center for Neuroeconomics Research; President of the International Foundation for Experimental Economic Research. President of the Economic Science Association (1986-87) and the "Public Choice" Society (1988-90). Recipient of the Adam Smith Award (1995).

Main works:

"Investments and production" (1961)

2003 The prize was awarded to American Robert Angle and Briton Clive Granger for building economic models that predict the future. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the prize to two scientists for their work in the critical area of ​​economic statistics, on which forecasts in economic models are based. Angle and Granger collected data to observe changes over time, such as identifying relationships between different hypotheses. “We are talking about such indicators of development as gross domestic product, consumer and stock prices, bank interest, etc.,” the Nobel Committee said in a statement.

The work of Angle and Granger is particularly important in financial markets, where erratic fluctuations can affect stock prices, and where there is a need to develop mechanisms to mitigate sudden market movements.

"Angle's models have become indispensable not only for researchers, but also for financial and market analysts who apply them in assessing property and investment risk," the Swedish Academy of Sciences said in a statement.

Professor Granger studied the relationship between key economic indicators such as prices and exchange rates, or wealth and consumption. His work helped explain long-term trends, reduce the effect of statistical fluctuations, and allowed economists to build better models to predict the path of the economy. The head of the Nobel Committee for Economics, Thorsten Person, said Granger's research "reversed statistical models with changes over time."

Robert Engle- American economist, specialist in methods of analysis of economic statistics. Born in 1942 in Syracuse, New York. His scientific career began with the study of physics - it was in this scientific discipline that he received a bachelor's degree from Williams College in 1964, and a master's degree from Cornell University in 1966. In parallel with the study of physics, he began to study economics, and soon it became the main area of ​​​​his scientific interests. In 1969, he was awarded a doctorate in economic theory from Cornell University.

In economics, Engle from the very beginning specialized in econometrics - methods of economic and statistical analysis. He has published more than 100 scientific papers on econometrics. Some of them are co-authored with Clive Granger, a colleague at the University of California.

He made his main scientific discovery, which brought him the Nobel Prize in Economics, while investigating the problem of volatility.

"Semiparametric estimates of the relationship between weather and electricity demand" (Journal of American Statistical Association. 1986. Vol. 81);

"Cointegration and Error Correction: Representation, Evaluation and Testing" (Econometrica. 1987. Vol. 55);

"Guide to Econometrics" (1994, jointly with D. McFadden et al.);

"Using ARCH/GARCH Models in Applied Econometric Research" (Journal of Economic Perspectives. Vol. 15. No. 4. Fall 2001).

Sir Clive William John Granger- English economist. Born September 4, 1934 in the UK in Swansea (Wales). He studied at the University of Nottingham, where in 1955 he received a bachelor's degree in mathematics, and in 1959 - a doctorate in statistics. Since the 1970s he has been a professor of economics at the American University of California at San Diego. Member of the Econometric Society.

Granger is the author of more than 150 scientific papers, including more than a dozen books. The main theme of his work was the study of the relationship between key economic indicators (for example, prices and exchange rates, or wealth and consumption). These relationships are analyzed using data on the values ​​of economic indicators over long periods of time - time series.

In 1974, Granger showed that statistical methods applied to the analysis of stationary series (when the trend is constant) can give completely wrong results if applied to time series (with a changing trend). A situation of a statistical trap may arise when traditional statistical methods of analysis show the relationship of such indicators, which in fact do not depend on each other.

To avoid this trap, he developed a new method of statistical analysis in the 1980s. It has been found that certain combinations of trend changes can be unchanged over time, which makes it possible to correct statistical inferences using methods developed for stationary series. Granger called this method cointegration.

The methods of economic and statistical analysis he developed help economists better explain long-term trends and build more reliable forecasts of economic development paths. The head of the Nobel Committee for Economics, Thorsten Person, said that Granger's methods "reversed the idea of ​​statistical models with changes over time." These methods are also used by Russian econometricians who study changes in macroeconomic indicators in the post-Soviet economy.

Main works:

"Spectral Analysis of Economic Time Series" (Princeton University Press, 1964);

"Testing for causality and feedback" (Econometrica. 1969. Vol. 37);

"Experience with statistical forecasting and with combining forecasts" (Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 1974);

"Forecasting Economic Time Series" (Academic Press, 1977);

"Semiparametric estimates of the relationship between weather and electricity demand" (Journal of American Statistical Association. 1986. Vol. 81)

"Cointegration and Error Correction: Representation, Evaluation and Testing" (Econometrica. 1987. Vol. 55)

"Modelling Nonlinear Dynamic Relationships" (Oxford University Press, 1993).

2004 Finn Kydland, Edward Prescott are awarded "for their contribution to the study of the influence of the time factor on economic policy and for research on the driving forces of business cycles." Kydland and Prescott are American economists specializing in the study of economic policy and cyclical fluctuations. They have been working together for more than 30 years, their main works are the product of collective creativity.

Finn Kidland- was born in Norway in a large family of farmers. In 1968 he received a bachelor's degree from the Norwegian School of Economics and Economic Management, and in 1973 - a doctorate from Carnegie Mellon University (USA, Pennsylvania). Since 1973 he has been teaching in the USA, retaining, however, Norwegian citizenship and sometimes traveling home to give lecture courses. Since 1976 - professor at Carnegie Mellon University. He also teaches at the University of Santa Barbara (California), heads the department of F. Henley, chairman of the board of directors of Oracle, one of the largest computer corporations in the world market.

Edward Prescott- was born in the USA, in New York. In 1962 he received a bachelor's degree in economics from Swarthmore College (Swarthmore College), in 1967 - a doctorate from Carnegie Mellon University. He worked successively at the University of Pennsylvania (1967-1971), Carnegie Mellon University (1971-1980), University of Minnesota (1980-2003). Since 2003, he has been a professor at Arizona State University and a researcher at the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Minnesota.

The studies of Kydland and Prescott polemicize with the theory of macroeconomics created in the 1930s-1960s by J. M. Keynes and his followers, according to which the state can “level out” cyclical market fluctuations, promptly responding to changes in macroeconomic indicators, and inflation and unemployment are inversely proportional to dependencies. However, in the crisis of the 1970s, it turned out that the economic cycle persisted, and stagnation could coexist with inflation.

Among the new explanations of macroeconomic problems, two papers jointly written by Kydland and Prescott received much attention from economists.

In "Rules Over Rights: The Failure of Optimal Plans", the authors demonstrated how anticipating the consequences of a government's future economic policy can lead to unsustainability and even failure of that very policy.

In their second acclaimed work, Building Time and Aggregate Fluctuations, Kydland and Prescott provided a theoretical explanation for the driving forces behind economic cycles (business cycles) in the US in the postwar period.

Main works:

"Rules rather than discretion: The inconsistency of optimal plan" (Journal of Political Economy. 1977. V. 85. R. 473-490);

"Time to build and aggregate fluctuations" (Econometrica. 1982. V. 50. R. 1345-1371)

2005 Robert Aumann and Thomas Schelling are awarded "For advancing our understanding of conflict and cooperation through the analysis of game theory".

Israel Robert John Aumann- Israeli mathematician, professor at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Born June 8, 1930 in Frankfurt am Main (Germany). Before the war, his family emigrated to the United States. Raised in New York, he graduated from New York City College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he received his doctorate in mathematics. In 1956 he immigrated to Israel and settled in Jerusalem. Until his retirement, he was a professor at the Center for Rational Research at the Hebrew University.

Israel Aumann chaired the Society for Game Theory and, in the early 1990s, was president of the Israel Mathematics Union. In addition, he was the managing editor of the Journal of the European Mathematical Society. Aumann has also advised the US Agency for Arms Control and Disarmament. He has been involved in game theory and its applications for about 40 years.

Game theory is the science of strategy, it studies how various competing groups - businessmen or any other community - can cooperate to obtain an ideal result. Aumann specialized in "repetitive games", analyzing the development of conflict over time.

Main works:

"Almost Strictly Competitive Games" (1961);

"Mixed and Behavior Strategies in Infinite Extensive Games" (1964)

Thomas Crombie Schelling- American economist. Born April 14, 1921 in the city of Oakland, pc. California (USA). T. Schelling is a professor at the University of Maryland (USA). Schelling received his doctorate from Harvard. He was born in 1921 and is one of the oldest winners of the economics prize. In 1991, he became president of the American Economic Association and received the title of honorary member of this organization. In addition, he received an award from the US National Academy of Sciences for "Research on Behavior for the Prevention of Nuclear War".

His book The Strategy of Conflict, published in 1960 and inaugurated the study of strategic behavior and bargaining, has been recognized as one of the hundred most influential books of the postwar period. Schelling is the founder of the theory of deterrence, which is the basis of the US nuclear strategy.

In addition, he has published on military strategy, environmental policy, climate change, nuclear proliferation and control, terrorism, organized crime, foreign aid and international trade, conflict, and bargaining theory.

Schelling showed that a player can strengthen his position by narrowing down the options available, and the ability to kick back can be more valuable than the ability to parry an attack. Characteristically, a guaranteed retaliatory strike, from the point of view of his theory, is less effective than an unguaranteed one. Schelling's work helped to avoid war and resolve many conflicts.

2006 Edmund Phelps received the prize for his analysis of intertemporal exchange in macroeconomic policy.

Edmund Phelps- American economist. Born July 26, 1933 in Ivanston, pc. Illinois. B.A. (1955) Amherst College; PhD (1959) Yale University. He taught at Yale (1958-66), Pennsylvania (1966-71) and Columbia Universities (since 1971). President of the International Atlantic Economic Society (1983-84).

Included in the list of "one hundred great economists after Keynes" according to M. Blaug.

Main works:

"Golden Rules of Economic Growth" (Golden Rules of Economic Growth, 1966);

"Microeconomic Foundations of Employment and the Theory of Inflation" (1970);

"A Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism" (1972);

"Research in the field of microeconomic theory" in 2 vols. (1979-80);

"Political Economy: An Introductory Text" (1985);

"Seven Schools of Macroeconomic Thought" (1990)

2007 Leonid Hurwitz, Eric Maskin, Roger Myerson shared the award "For creating the foundations of the theory of designing distribution mechanisms."

Leonid Gurvits- American economist, professor emeritus at the University of Minnesota. He served on the Coles Commission and was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics. Born August 21, 1917 in Moscow. His family left Moscow in January 1919 and returned to their father's homeland in Warsaw. After receiving a master's degree in law from Warsaw University in 1938, he continued his studies at the London School of Economics, where he attended lectures by Nicholas Kaldor and Friedrich Hayek. In 1939 he went to Geneva, but already on September 1, 1939, the Second World War began. His parents and brother fled the war from Warsaw and ended up in Soviet camps. He was more fortunate, he lived for some time in Switzerland, where he continued his studies at the Geneva Institute of International Studies. In 1940 he left for the USA.

During the war, Leonid Gurvich worked as a lecturer at the Institute of Meteorology at the University of Chicago, while teaching statistics at the Faculty of Economics. He also served on the Coles Commission for Economic Research. In 1951 he became professor of economics and mathematics at the School of Business and Administration at the University of Minnesota.

Gurvich and his colleagues managed to create a theory that helps to identify effective trade mechanisms and economic regulation schemes, as well as to determine whether state intervention is necessary in a given situation. Scientists laid the foundations of the theory of optimal mechanisms and explained the process of optimal allocation of resources.

Main works:

"Stochastic Models of Economic Fluctuations" (1944);

"Optimality and information efficiency of resource allocation" (1960);

"On information decentralized systems" (1972);

"On distributions attainable through the Nash equilibrium" (1979);

"Design of economic mechanisms" (2006, together with S. Reuter)

2008 Paul Krugman is awarded "for his analysis of trading patterns and locations of economic activity." In recent years, Krugman has been named as one of the likely Nobel Prize winners. In 1995, he won the Adam Smith Prize, in 2000 - Rektenwald, and in 2004 - the Prince of Asturias.

Paul Krugman- American economist and publicist. Born on Long Island (New York) in a Jewish family of David and Anita Krugman. Studied at Yale University; PhD (1977) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He taught there, as well as at Yale, the University of California (Berkeley campus), the London School of Economics, Stanford; currently (since 2000) professor at Princeton University.

Awarded the J.B. Clark Medal (1991). Since 2000, he has been writing an analytical column for The New York Times. Recipient of the Adam Smith (1995), Rechtenwald (2000) and Prince of Asturias (2004) awards. Honorary Member of the Munich Center for Economic Research (1997). Member of the G-30.

Krugman is best known for his research on international trade. He, in particular, deals with the issues of import and export of identical goods, economies of scale (economies of scale) of production.

Main works:

"Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics" (Strategic Trade Policy and the New International Economics, 1986);

"International Economics: Theory and Policy" (International Economics: Theory and Policy, 1988, co-authored with M. Obstfeld);

Trade Policy and Market Structure (1989);

The Spatial Economy: Cities, Regions and International Trade (1999).