Mark the beginning of the legislative enslavement of peasants. Stages of enslavement of peasants. Characteristics of the main stages of peasant enslavement

Serfdom- a legally confirmed provision in which the peasant could not leave the land to which he was assigned without permission from the authorities. The runaway peasant was caught, punished and forcibly returned. By decision of the landowner, a serf could be sold, sent to hard labor, or given up as a soldier.

In the 15th century, the young Russian state waged continuous wars: in the southeast with the Kazan Khanate, Crimeans and Nogais, in the west with Sweden and Lithuania (later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). The treasury could not support a huge professional army, so a local system was formed. A service man (warrior, professional military man) was “settled” on the land given to him by the prince. That is, during his service, this land belonged to him - he and his family had to feed from it. For this he was obliged to perform military and border service.

But the land itself does not feed; it needs to be cultivated. Considering that a service man spent up to ten months a year on Ukrainian borders (borders) and on campaigns, he could not do this himself, even if he could and wanted to. Moreover, in addition to food from the land, he had to acquire and maintain everything necessary for the campaign: a horse, weapons, armor. Peasants were needed to cultivate the land and provide the landowner with everything he needed.

It should also be noted the low level of agricultural productivity. If in the Mediterranean countries the harvest reached 1:12 (a sown bag of wheat yielded 12 bags of harvest), in Europe it was 1:6, in Rus' - 1:3. It was not easy for a peasant to feed himself and his family. Therefore, when the feudal lord began to take away part of the product to satisfy his needs, the peasants sought to escape. Another factor was enemy invasions and epidemics, from which people also fled to better lands. Population density decreased sharply, and as a result, the amount of production decreased.

The most widespread period, when many territories were practically depopulated, was the Time of Troubles. In order to provide the nascent nobility with material resources, it was necessary to secure the peasants on the land.

Formation of serfdom in the Russian state

Table: stages of peasant enslavement.

		Ruler	Document
	The time for leaving the landowner is determined to be two weeks (St. George’s Day) with payment for the elderly		Code of Law
	The regulation on St. George's Day was confirmed, the size of the elderly was increased		Code of Law
	In certain years, peasants are prohibited from crossing		Decree on “Reserved Summers”
	A 5-year search for fugitives has been introduced	Fedor Ivanovich	Decree on “Scheduled summers”
	A 15-year search for fugitives has been introduced	Vasily Shuisky	Cathedral Code
	Lesson summers have been cancelled, and an indefinite investigation has been introduced.	Alexey Mikhailovich	Cathedral Code

The first step towards the enslavement of free peasants was the Code of Law of Ivan III in 1497. One of its provisions was the appointment of a period when the peasant could leave the landowner. It was St. George's Day, the feast of St. George the Victorious. It fell on November 26, old style (December 9). A week before and a week after it, the farmer could leave the feudal lord. By this time, the crops had already been harvested, and, consequently, the peasant paid all state taxes and all types of natural and monetary obligations in favor of the landowner. The peasant had to pay elderly- compensation to the landowner for the loss of a worker.

The next stage was the introduction by Ivan the Terrible of “ reserved years" - a time when the peasant could not leave even on St. George's Day. This rule was introduced in 1581.

In 1597 the concept of “ lesson years", according to which the landowner could search for a fugitive for up to 5 years. And in 1607, the period for searching for fugitive peasants was increased to 15 years.

And in 1649, the Council Code of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov finally enslaved the peasants. The search for fugitives became indefinite, even if the peasant fled many years ago, married a free woman, and had children. He was found, and together with all the household members, he was returned with all his property to the master.

In addition to the peasant cultivators, the personal property of the landowners included numerous courtyard people, servants, grooms, and cooks. Serf theater and ballet troupes were recruited from the servants.

Categories of unfree citizens in Rus'

Unfree people in Rus' appeared simultaneously with the formation of the state. They could be either temporarily unfree or for life. They can be roughly divided into three categories: stinkers, purchases, slaves.

Smerda

Smerda- initially free cultivators, eventually assigned to the land they cultivated. The land could either belong to the smerd himself and be inherited by his sons, or be the property of a prince or monastery. Smerds were obliged to pay taxes to the prince and serve natural duties, field a foot army or provide him with horses and fodder. In addition to lack of freedom and economic dependence, their rights were infringed. According to Russian Truth, for the murder of a lyudin (free community member) the penalty was 40 hryvnia, for the murder of a smerd - 5 hryvnia.

Purchases

Purchases- workers who entered into a series (agreement) with the feudal lord, according to which they sold themselves for a certain period or until repayment taken according to the series. Most often, in order to avoid starvation, the peasant took seeds, equipment, livestock, and less often money from the feudal lord. He settled on the land of his temporary owner and gave away part of the harvest. After working off the debt, he was free to leave his place of residence. When trying to escape from the landowner without paying off, he became a whitewashed slave.

Serfs

Serfs- the category closest to slaves. White slaves were the property of the owner along with utensils and livestock. Children born from slaves (offspring) became the property of the parents' owner. Serfs most often fell into slavery during wars and raids. In enemy territory they took a full, drove it to their own land and “served” it, that is, turned it into slaves. Citizens were put into captivity by court decision for serious crimes. It was called “flood and plunder.” The entire family of the culprit could be turned into slaves. Another category is debt slavery; creditors could sell an insolvent debtor as a slave. A free man who married a servant also became a slave. The owner did not bear responsibility for the murder of his slave, but for someone else’s he was responsible for damage to property.

The remaining categories of peasants were free community members and lived on their own land. In case of war, epidemic, or crop failure, they could leave their homes and go to other lands. This is precisely what became the reason for the gradual enslavement of farmers.

Two theories of the origin of serfdom in Russia.

In the 19th century, two theories of the origin of serfdom were formed - decree and non-decree. According to the decree theory, the author of which was the Russian historian Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov, serfdom became the result of the activities of the state. In his opinion, the consistent policy of the Muscovite kingdom, and later the Russian Empire, secured the peasants based on the needs of the country. This was done in order to provide a material base for the service class, which bears the heavy burden of government service. In this way, not only the peasants, but also the service people themselves were established.

Another Russian historian, Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky, put forward a different, unspecified theory. In his opinion, legislative acts did not formulate, but merely confirmed the actual state of affairs. In the first place he put the economic factor and private law relations, which allowed one class to exploit another.

Slave and serf

The difference between the serf and the slave in the British American colonies and the United States, 1619–1865.

Slave of the British Colonies	Serf peasant
Subject of law
He was incompetent: in court, his owner was responsible for the slave’s misdeeds. In relation to the slave himself, the full extent of his responsibility was determined by the slave owner himself; he could impose any punishment, up to execution.	Unlike a slave, he represented himself in court and could act as a witness, including against the landowner. Serf landowners were tried for the murder. From 1834 to 1845, 2,838 nobles were brought to trial, 630 of them were convicted. The most high-profile trial was the trial of landowner Daria Nikolaevna Saltykova. For the murder of several dozen serfs, she was deprived of her nobility and sentenced to death, which was commuted to life imprisonment.
Own
A slave could not own property. His home, clothing, food and tools belonged to the planter.	The serf lived in his own home, worked with his own tools, and provided for himself. Could engage in latrine farming. In the months not occupied with work on the land, peasants went to construction sites, mines, factories, and were engaged in carriage and small-scale production. In the 19th century, more than 5 million people were employed annually in waste trades
Family
A slave could not have a family.	The serf married his wife and his marriage was sanctified by the church
Possibility of release
The opportunity to be released was only in some states. A slave who had received his freedom could be sold again at auction in states where slavery was enshrined in law.	The serf could buy himself from the landowner. Thus, the founder of the Morozov dynasty of philanthropists, Savva Vasilyevich, having started working as a handicraft weaver, bought himself from a landowner and his five sons for money unimaginable at that time - 17 thousand rubles. The Guchkovs, Ryabushinskys and many other rich dynasties came from serfs.

Often the legal rights of serfs were not respected; the decrees of sovereigns were advisory in nature. Therefore, cruel treatment and arbitrariness of landowners were not the exception, but the rule in the Russian Empire. The most disenfranchised were not the peasants (the community and government officials stood up for them), but the servants - servants living on the estates or city houses of landowners. At different times, the number of serfs in Russia ranged from 27 to 53%.

Abolition of serfdom

Serfdom in the Russian Empire was abolished in stages: from 1816 to 1819 - abolished in the Courland, Livonia, and Estland provinces. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II signed the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants.” In Bessarabia, serfdom lasted until 1868, in Abkhazia, Armenia, Azerbaijan - until 1870, in Georgia - until 1971.

Tables: Form of enslavement of peasants

Historical period	Form of enslavement	Description
Early feudal state (IX-XI centuries)		Smerdas are plowmen dependent on the prince.
Feudal fragmentation (XII-XIII centuries)		Serebryaniki (those who borrowed money - “silver” - with the obligation to work it off with their labor), ladles or sharers (those who worked on the land, as a rule, “in half” - for half the harvest).
Formation of a centralized state	Elderly 15th century	Compensation for the empty yard and labor losses to the landowner when the peasant leaves. Code of Law of 1550 - the “elderly” was doubled.
	St. George's Day	Historical transition period. Old-time peasants who had lived for four years or more with the landowner, in the event of a transfer, paid him “the whole of the old,” while new arrivals paid “part of the yard.” In the Code of Laws of 1497. The rule of St. George's Day became mandatory for the entire peasantry.
	Reserved summers	1581-1592 – Flight of peasants from their homes due to the oprichnina → temporary prohibition of the transition (cancellation of St. George’s Day).
	Summer lessons	1597 – Search for fugitive peasants and return them to the feudal lords. A five-year period of searching for fugitive peasants (an attempt to keep the peasantry in place). 1614 - as with the introduction of St. George’s Day, the first to receive preferential rights was the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, which, as a reward for defense during the years of intervention, was allowed to search for its peasants for 9 years. 1637 - in response to the collective petition of the nobles to abolish the “lesson years,” the government extended the effect of a private decree to all feudal lords and extended the search for fugitive peasants from 5 to 9 years. 1641 – after a new collective petition from the nobles, the period for searching for fugitive peasants was increased to 10 years. Cathedral Code of 1649 - the proclamation “to search for runaway peasants indefinitely”, an eternal and indefinite hereditary peasant fortress was established.
		Work performed by peasants for their masters. The creation of a corvee economy based on peasant labor was a necessity for the landowner if he wanted to improve the quality of products and increase the income of his farm.
	Developmental Grocery monetary	Work on the owner's arable land and hayfields, in vegetable gardens and orchards, on the construction and repair of estate buildings, mills, dams, etc. Including both agricultural and livestock products and household industrial products, like no other, it contributed to the conservation of the natural character of the economy. In the 17th century, with rare exceptions, monetary rent did not yet play an independent role and was most often combined with corvee duties and payments in kind.

Literature:

1. Litvinov M. A. History of serfdom in Russia.

Briefly, the chronology of the enslavement of peasants in Russia can be presented as follows:

1. 1497 - Introduction of restrictions on the right to transfer from one landowner to another - St. George's Day.
2. 1581 - Cancellation of St. George's Day - “reserved summers”.
3. 1597 - The landowner’s right to search for a runaway peasant within 5 years and to return him to the owner - “prescribed years”.
4. 1607 - The period for searching for fugitive peasants was increased to 15 years.
5. 1649 - The Council Code abolished fixed-term summers, thus establishing an indefinite search for fugitive peasants.
6. XVIII century - gradual strengthening of serfdom in Russia.

ESTABLISHMENT OF PEASANTS IN RUSSIA

While in Western Europe the rural population was gradually freed from personal dependence, in Russia during the 2nd half. XVI-XVII centuries the reverse process took place - the peasants turned into serfs, i.e. attached to the land and personality of their feudal lord.

1. Prerequisites for the enslavement of peasants

The natural environment was the most important prerequisite for serfdom in Russia. The withdrawal of the surplus product necessary for the development of society in the climatic conditions of vast Russia required the creation of the most stringent mechanism of non-economic coercion. The establishment of serfdom occurred in the process of confrontation between the community and the developing local land ownership. The peasants perceived arable land as God's and royal property, at the same time believing that it belonged to the one who worked on it. The spread of local land ownership, and especially the desire of service people to take direct control of part of the communal land (i.e., to create a “lordly plowing” that would guarantee the satisfaction of their needs, especially in military equipment, and most importantly, would make it possible to directly transfer this land to as an inheritance to his son and thereby secure his family practically on patrimonial right) met resistance from the community, which could only be overcome by completely subjugating the peasants. In addition, the state was in dire need of guaranteed tax revenue. Given the weakness of the central administrative apparatus, tax collection was transferred to the hands of the landowners. But for this it was necessary to rewrite the peasants and attach them to the personality of the feudal lord. The effect of these prerequisites began to manifest itself especially actively under the influence of disasters and destruction caused by the oprichnina and the Livonian War. As a result of the flight of the population from the devastated center to the outskirts, the problem of providing the service class with labor and the state with taxpayers sharply worsened. In addition to the above reasons, enslavement was facilitated by the demoralization of the population caused by the horrors of the oprichnina, as well as peasant ideas about the landowner as a royal man sent from above to protect against external hostile forces.

2. Main stages of enslavement

The process of enslaving peasants in Russia was quite long and went through several stages.

The first stage is the end of the 15th - the end of the 16th century. Even in the era of Ancient Rus', part of the rural population lost personal freedom and turned into smerds and slaves. In conditions of fragmentation, peasants could leave the land on which they lived and move to another landowner. The Code of Law of 1497 streamlined this right, confirming the right of peasants after paying the “elderly” to the opportunity to “go out” on St. George’s Day in the autumn (the week before November 26 and the week after). At other times, peasants did not move to other lands - busy with agricultural work, autumn and spring thaw, and frosts interfered. But the fixation by law of a certain short period of transition testified, on the one hand, to the desire of the feudal lords and the state to limit the rights of the peasants, and on the other, to their weakness and inability to assign the peasants to the person of a certain feudal lord. In addition, this right forced landowners to take into account the interests of the peasants, which had a beneficial effect on the socio-economic development of the country. This norm was also contained in the new Code of Laws of 1550. However, in 1581, in conditions of extreme devastation of the country and the flight of the population, Ivan IV introduced “reserved years” prohibiting peasant exit in the territories most affected by disasters. This measure was emergency and temporary.

A new stage in the development of enslavement began at the end of the 16th century and ended with the publication of the Council Code of 1649. In 1592 (or 1593), i.e. During the reign of Boris Godunov, a decree was issued (the text of which has not been preserved), prohibiting exit throughout the country and without any time restrictions. In 1592, the compilation of scribe books began (i.e., a population census was carried out, which made it possible to assign peasants to their place of residence and return them in case of escape and further capture to the old owners), the lordly land was “whitewashed” (i.e., exempted from taxes). smell. The compilers of the decree of 1597 were guided by scribe books, establishing the so-called. “period years” (the period of search for fugitive peasants, defined as five years). After a five-year period, the escaped peasants were subject to enslavement in new places, which met the interests of large landowners and nobles of the southern and southwestern districts, where the main flows of fugitives were sent. The dispute over labor between the nobles of the center and the southern outskirts became one of the causes of the upheavals of the early 17th century. At the second stage of enslavement, there was a sharp struggle between various groups of landowners and peasants on the issue of the period for searching for fugitives, until the Council Code of 1649 abolished the “lesson years”, introduced an indefinite search and finally enslaved the peasants.

At the third stage (from the middle of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century), serfdom developed along an ascending line. The peasants lost the remnants of their rights; for example, according to the law of 1675, they could be sold without land. In the 18th century landowners received full right to dispose of their person and property, including exile without trial to Siberia and to hard labor. In their social and legal status, peasants came closer to slaves; they began to be treated as “talking cattle.”

At the fourth stage (end of the 18th century - 1861), serf relations entered the stage of their decomposition. The state began to implement measures that somewhat limited serfdom, and serfdom, as a result of the spread of humane and liberal ideas, was condemned by the leading part of the Russian nobility.

3. Consequences of enslavement

Serfdom led to the establishment of an extremely ineffective form of feudal relations, preserving the backwardness of Russian society. Feudal exploitation deprived direct producers of interest in the results of their labor and undermined both the peasant and, ultimately, the landowner economy. Having aggravated the social division of society, serfdom caused mass popular uprisings that shook Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries. Serfdom formed the basis of a despotic form of power and predetermined the lack of rights not only for the lower classes, but also for the upper ranks of society. The landowners served the tsar faithfully also because they became “hostages” of the serfdom system, because their safety and possession of “baptized property” could only be guaranteed by a strong central government. Dooming the people to patriarchy and ignorance, serfdom prevented the penetration of cultural values ​​into the people's environment. It also affected the moral character of the people, giving rise to some slavish habits in them, as well as sharp transitions from extreme humility to all-destructive rebellion. And yet, in the natural, social and cultural conditions of Russia, another form of organization of production and society probably did not exist.

No. 17 Centralizing reforms of Ivan 4 (1549-1560). "The Chosen Rada"

At the end of the 40s, a government was formed that took over leadership from the boyar duma; this body was called the “Elected Rada.” The “elected council” was a body that exercised direct executive power, formed a new administrative apparatus and directed it. The most authoritative politicians of the new government were Adashev and Sylvester. Expressing general sentiments, the Tsar and the Metropolitan convened councils of reconciliation. On February 27, 1549, a meeting was convened at which the Boyar Duma was present almost in its entirety; in fact, it was the first Zemsky Sobor. At this stage, the king ruled together with the “elected council.” The goals of the king's reforms: To curb popular unrest caused by the tyranny and bribery of the boyars. Strengthening the central government and its support - the serving nobility. Contents of the reforms: 1) Reform of central and local government: expansion of the boyar duma, convening of the Zemsky Sobor. The Zemsky Sobor is a type of parliament, an estate-representative body. Also, huts were replaced by orders (local order, discharge order, ambassadorial order, etc.). 2) Military reform: the creation of the Streltsy army, the “service code” was adopted, from every 150 hectares there was to be 1 warrior, mounted and armed. Every nobleman from the age of 15 had to serve the Tsar. 3) Financial reform: a) replacement of household taxation - land taxation (not from each yard, but depending on the land) b) Tax tax - monetary and in-kind duties in favor of the state (feedings were abolished) 4) Judicial reform: a) a code of law was adopted Ivan IV in 1550, he is called the second in the “Russian Truth”. Main provisions: the court is in the hands of those elected by the people: elders and jurors. b) the responsibility of feudal lords for their peasants was established. c) the peasants’ exit on St. George’s Day was confirmed, but the payment was increased. d) Introduction of punishment for bribery. 5) Church reform. 1551 – Hundred-Glavy Cathedral. a) restriction of monastic land ownership; b) prohibition on giving money to monasteries in interest; c) Condemnation of the sale of church positions, extortion; d) Development of education through religious colleges and schools; e) strengthening the moral influence of the church on society; g) a single, all-Russian list of saints was created, two fingers were introduced. The reforms led Russia to major military and political successes.

17. Centralization reforms of Ivan IV (1549-1560). "The Chosen Rada"

Reforms

They considered the patrimonial boyars as supporters of the “appanage system” and, consequently, the fragmentation of Russia. In the fight against them, Ivan the Terrible relied on the noble landowners, who personified centralizing tendencies. In this regard, oprichnina terror, according to these authors, was the step that weakened the economic and political positions of the boyars, strengthening the position of service people and completing the centralization of Russia. In the 70–80s. XX century V.B. Kobrin showed that the boyars were not an aristocratic opposition to the centralizing activities of Ivan IV, since all the centralizing reforms of the tsar took place according to the “sentence”

ru of the Boyar Duma", i.e. were developed by Ivan the Terrible in alliance with the boyar elite.

Many Russian political reforms have a dual character: they begin with democratic reforms and end with counter-reforms. An example of this can be the events of the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible, namely the reforms of the Chosen Rada and the oprichnina.

An example of Russia's first experience of unsuccessful reforms was the transformation of Ivan IV the Terrible. At the initial, democratic stage of the reforms of the Elected Rada in the country, the first representative body of power was convened - the Zemsky Sobor, boyar feeding was abolished, and local government and the court were transferred to the hands of elders and judges elected by the population. During the reign of the Elected Rada, the first executive authorities appeared in the country - orders. Thus, an attempt was made to carry out reforms in Russia according to the European model, i.e. division of power into legislative, executive and judicial. However, Ivan the Terrible was unable to achieve effective governance of the country through democratic measures, since the weakening of centralization was perceived by the population as a signal for disorganization. The weakening of the country was manifested in the defeats of the Russian army in the Livonian War. The response to this was Ivan IV’s attempt to strengthen state power through the oprichnina policy, which led to the fall of the government of the Chosen Rada and terror against all classes of Russian society. Thus, Ivan the Terrible saw the reason for the unsuccessful reform of the country not in objective

the peculiarities of Russian civilization, which cannot be reformed according to the European model, as he tried to implement, but in the subjective actions of the Russian population, which, in the opinion of the tsar, abused the political freedoms granted to him.

Elected Rada.

Elected Rada is a term introduced by Prince A.M. Kurbsky to designate the circle of people who made up the informal government under Ivan the Terrible in 1549-1560. The term itself is found only in the work of Kurbsky, while Russian sources of that time do not give this circle of people any official name.

The formation of a select circle of people around the tsar occurs after the Moscow events of the summer of 1547: a fire and then an uprising of Muscovites.

The composition of the “Elected Rada” is the subject of debate. Definitely, the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin, the confessor of the Tsar Sylvester, and a young figure from a not very noble family, A. F. Adashev, participated in the “Rada”.

On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Elected Rada as an institution led exclusively by the three above-mentioned persons.

N.M. Karamzin includes in the “holy union” Metropolitan Macarius, as well as “virtuous, experienced men, in venerable old age still zealous for the fatherland.” The participation of princes Kurbsky and Kurlyatev is also undoubtedly. In addition to these two, N.I. Kostomarov lists Vorotynsky, Serebryany, Gorbaty, Sheremetyev.

Soviet historian R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the “Elected Rada” is not the Middle Duma, which included the boyars (princes Ivan Mstislavsky, Vladimir Vorotynsky and Dmitry Paletsky, Ivan Sheremetev, Mikhail Morozov, Dmitry Kurlyatev-Obolensky, Danila Romanov-Zakharyin and Vasily Yuryev-Zakharyin), boyar children in the Duma (Alexey Adashev and Ignatiy Veshnyakov), clerk (Ivan Viskovaty) and printer (Nikita Funikov).

The elected council lasted until 1560. She carried out transformations that were called reforms of the mid-16th century.

Reforms of the Elected Rada:

1. 1549 The First Zemsky Sobor is a body of class representation that ensures the connection between the center and the localities;

2. Code of Law of 1550 - development of the provisions of Code of Law of Ivan 3, limitation of the power of governors and volosts, strengthening of control of the tsarist administration, uniform amount of court fees, preservation of the right of peasants to move on St. George’s Day.

3. Military reform of 1550 - restriction of localism for the period of hostilities, in addition to the mounted local militia, organization of a standing army - archers, gunners.

4. The Council of the Hundred Heads of 1551 – unification of church rituals, recognition of all locally revered saints as all-Russian, establishment of a strict iconographic canon, requirements for improving the morals of the clergy, prohibition of usury among priests.

5. Formation of the order system:

Ambassadorial order;

Petition order (Adashev) – the highest control body;

The local order was in charge of land ownership;

The robber order sought and tried;

The Streletsky Order was in charge of the created Streltsy army.

6. Continuation of the provincial reform - abolition of feedings, all power in the districts passed to elected provincial and zemstvo elders, and in cities - to favorite heads.

Thus, the reforms of the Elected Rada outlined the path to strengthening and centralization of the state and contributed to the formation of an estate-representative state.

In 1560 the Rada fell. Its most active members were disgraced. A.F. Adashev was sent to the voivodeship in the conquered Livonian city of Fellin (he would later die in prison in Dorpat), Sylvester was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery. The main contradiction was the radical difference in the views of the Tsar and the Rada on the issue of centralization of power in the state (the process of centralization is the process of concentrating state power). Ivan IV wanted to speed up this process. The elected Rada chose the path of gradual and painless reform.

First stage dates back to the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, when the offensive of feudal landowners and the state against the peasants began. The growth of local and patrimonial land ownership was accompanied by the subordination of peasants to the power of land owners. The peasants turned into serfs, i.e. tied to the earth and their master. Thus, the development of serfdom in Russia was associated with the formation of the local system and the increasing role of the state. The economic basis of serfdom was feudal ownership of land in all its forms - local, patrimonial, state.

Until the end of the 15th century, peasants could leave their masters and move to another landowner. Code of Law of Ivan III (1497) introduced "St. George's Day Rule", according to which peasants could leave their owners only once a year - a week before St. George’s Day (November 26) and during the week after it, with mandatory payment "elderly"- payment for living on the owner's land. This was the first nationwide restriction of peasant freedom, but not yet enslavement.

In the Code of Laws of Ivan IV (1550) the norms of the peasant transition on St. George's Day were confirmed and clarified, the elderly increased, the master's power over the peasants strengthened: the owner was held responsible for the crimes of the peasants. Now the feudal lord was called the “sovereign” of the peasant, i.e. The legal status of the peasant was approaching the status of a serf, which was a step on the path to serfdom.

Second phase The enslavement of peasants in the country occurred from the end of the 16th century. until 1649, when the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was published.

At the end of the 16th century. There was a radical change in the situation of the peasants, deprived of the right of exit from their owners. In the conditions of the ruin of the country and the flight of peasants, Ivan the Terrible 1581 introduced serfdom legislation - “reserved years”, when St. George’s Day was canceled and the transition of peasants was prohibited, which meant an important step towards the formalization of serfdom in Russia. IN 1592 – 1593 A decree was issued that forever abolished the right of peasants to cross on St. George's Day. Under Boris Godunov, a decree was issued in 1597, which ordered that all fugitive and forcibly removed peasants be searched for and returned to their previous owners within a five-year period. The serfdom legislation of the late 16th century is the most important stage in the history of serfdom in Russia. Now farmers were attached to the land, and not to the owner.

During the Time of Troubles, in conditions of crisis of all power structures, it was increasingly difficult to keep the peasants from leaving. Vasily Shuisky, hoping for the support of the nobility, issued serfdom legislation that provided for an increase in the term lesson years. In 1606, a 10-year period was established, and in 1607, a 15-year period for searching for fugitive peasants.

The system of serfdom was legally formalized Cathedral Code of 1649 It assigned privately owned peasants to landowners, boyars, monasteries and other owners, and also established the dependence of privately owned peasants on the state. The Council Code abolished the “lesson years”, approved the right to an indefinite search and return of fugitives, secured the heredity of serfdom and the right of the landowner to dispose of the property of the serf.

Third stage The enslavement of peasants dates back to the middle of the 17th - 18th centuries, when serfdom was being strengthened and further developed. During this period, serious differences were observed in the right to dispose of peasants: the landowner could sell, exchange, or inherit them. During the reign of Peter I, the size of peasant duties increased and serf exploitation intensified. This was facilitated by the Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714, which turned noble estates into estates, the land and peasants became the full property of the landowner. In the 18th century Serfdom acquired its most severe forms. Corvee and quitrent grew, and with them the rights of landowners in relation to the property and personality of the peasant. The legislation consolidated a regime of unlimited landowner arbitrariness in relation to serfs.

Gradually at the end of the XVIII - XIX centuries. The process of decomposition of feudal relations intensifies, the feudal-serf system enters a period of crisis, and capitalist relations emerge.

Thus, serfdom is an important difference between Russian social development and Western European social development. The Russian state tied the peasants into feudal dependence, sacrificing the natural development of society.

Unlike other European states, in Russia the process of enslaving peasants was a long one. It took place in several stages. Each has its own characteristics.
Some peasants lost their freedom back in the days of Ancient Rus'. It was then that the first forms of addiction began to appear. Some voluntarily left under the protection of others. Others worked off debt obligations on the lands of a prince or boyar. When the estates were alienated, the peasants who did not have time to work off the debt were also transferred to the new owner.
But this was not yet enslavement as such. Most of the peasants were free.
The time frame of the first stage can be determined by the 10th–15th centuries.
The process of enslavement of peasants is based on economic reasons.
Lands were divided into three categories according to their ownership: church, boyar (or service) and sovereign.
It so happened in Rus' that peasants lived and worked on lands that did not belong to them. Three categories of owners owned the lands: the church, the boyars (or servicemen) and the sovereign. There were also so-called black lands. Legally, they had no owners. Peasants settled en masse on such lands, cultivated them and harvested crops. But they didn’t consider it property.
That is, according to legal law, the peasant was a free ploughman, cultivating the land under an agreement with the owner. The independence of the peasants lay in the ability to leave one plot of land and move to another. He could do this only by paying off the owner of the land, that is, when the field work was completed. The landowner did not have the right to expel the peasant from the land before the end of the harvest. In other words, the parties entered into a land agreement.
Until a certain time, the state did not interfere in these relations.
IN 1497 year Ivan III compiled a Code of Law, which was designed to protect the interests of land owners. This was the first document establishing the norms for the process of enslavement of peasants that had begun. The fifty-seventh article of the new law introduced a rule according to which peasants were allowed to leave their owners at a strictly defined time. The counting time was chosen 26 November. A church holiday was celebrated in honor of St. George. By this time the harvest was harvested. The peasants were allowed to leave a week before St. George's Day and for a week after it. The law obliged the peasants to pay the master “elderly”, a special tax (cash or in kind) for living on his land.
This was not yet enslavement of the peasants, but it seriously limited their freedom.
IN 1533 Ivan ascends the throne IV Grozny.
The reign of the Grand Duke of “All Rus'” was difficult. The campaigns against Kazan and the Astrakhan Khanate and the Livonian War had a detrimental effect on the country's economy. A huge amount of land was devastated. The peasants were removed from their homes.
Ivan the Terrible updates the Code of Laws. In the new legislation from 1550 year, the Tsar confirms the status of St. George's Day, but increases the “elderly”. Now it was almost impossible for a peasant to leave the feudal lord. The size of the duty was unaffordable for many.
The second stage of the process of enslaving the peasants begins.
Ruinous wars force the government to impose additional taxes, which makes the situation of the peasants even more difficult.
In addition to economic problems, the country was ravaged by natural disasters: crop failures, epidemics, and pestilence. Agricultural farms fell into decline. Peasants, driven by hunger, fled to the warm southern regions.
IN 1581 year, Ivan the Terrible introduces reserved summers. Peasants are temporarily prohibited from leaving their owners. By this measure the tsar tried to prevent the desolation of the landowners' lands.
Landownership was provided by labor.
During these same years, a description of the lands was carried out. The purpose of this event was to sum up the economic crisis. The event was accompanied by a massive distribution of plots to landowners. At the same time, scribe books were compiled that attached the peasants to the land where the census found them.
In Rus', serfdom was actually established. But the final enslavement of the peasants had not yet occurred.
The third stage in the process of formation of serfdom is associated with the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. The Tsar himself was unable to rule the country; Boris Godunov was in power.
The position of “Tsar Boris” himself was very precarious. He was forced to fight for power, flirting with the boyars and nobility.
The result was another step towards the final enslavement of the peasants.
IN 1597 year he introduces Lesson Summer. The law stated that the landowner could search everywhere for his runaway peasant for five years. Vasily Shuisky, who later came to power, extended this period until 15 years.
The country still has a difficult economic situation. Hunger provokes popular discontent. Godunov is forced to make some concessions to the peasants. IN 1601 year he issues a Decree restoring St. George's Day.
Now the landowners were already unhappy. They began to hold the peasants by force. Clashes began. This inflamed the already difficult social situation.
IN 1606 Vasily Shuisky comes to power and immediately begins the fight against the peasant movement.
He studies the scribal books of past years. Based on them, Shuisky issues a Decree. In it, he declares all peasants registered with their landowners to be “strong.”

And yet, this was only the next, fourth stage of the enslavement of the peasants. The process is not completely completed.
The law issued by Vasily Shuisky, in addition to increasing the period for searching a peasant, established a fine for accepting a fugitive.
Theoretically, the peasants could still leave the landowner. But the owner’s payment was increased to three rubles a year - a huge amount. Especially considering the numerous epidemics and crop failures.
It was allowed to hire a peasant only with the permission of the landowner to whom he belonged.
That is, there was no talk of any actual freedom for the peasant.

The final enslavement of the peasants occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov. IN 1649 In 2009, the Council Code was issued, which put an end to this process. The Code determined the place of the peasantry in society. The legislation was very harsh towards dependent peasants.
The Code determines the permanent serfdom of peasants. The basis for attachment was census books.
Summer classes have been cancelled. The right to indefinitely search for fugitive peasants was introduced.
Serfdom was defined as hereditary. Not only children, but also other relatives of the peasant belonged to the landowner.
In the event of the death of a landowner, all serfs belonging to him (along with other property!) passed to his son or daughter.
A free girl, having tied the knot with a serf, herself became dependent.
Serfs could be left as collateral or sold. The landowner could give away the peasant for a gambling debt.
Peasants could sell goods only from carts.

So by the end XVII century, the final enslavement of the peasants took place. The centuries-long process was completed.

In subsequent years (until the end XVIII century) the situation of the peasants worsened.
Unpopular laws were adopted that established the full power of the landowners. Peasants could be sold without land and sent to hard labor without trial. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their masters.
The enslavement of peasants strengthened the split in social strata and provoked popular riots. Initially aimed at developing the land economy, serfdom eventually became an extremely ineffective form of economic relations.