“Copper images are quite cheap prices…. The Plot Variety of Old Believer Copper Casting I: The History of Icon Casting. Image of Jesus Christ

At the moment, there is no special study on Old Believer copper casting in the Komi region. In 1996, an article by N.N. Chesnokova (1996) was published, which suggests using casting as one of the sources on the history of the formation of ethno-confessional groups in the Pechory region. On the territory of the Komi region, copper casting became widespread among both Russians and Komi Old Believers living in the lower reaches of the Vashka, the upper reaches of the Vychegda, in the middle and upper Pechora. Currently there is no information about the existence of a local production center. The only mention of the casting of icons on the upper Pechora, found in the report of Yu.V. Gagarin (Scientific Report 1967), does not have any confirmation.

Now the majority of residents of Old Believer villages do not consider themselves Old Believers: “We are not Old Believers, we are worldly, Old Believers are those who eat from separate dishes.” It is difficult to establish at the moment what ideological principles the Upper Vychegoda Old Believers adhered to, they have no ideas about the senses and consents, a similar situation can be observed in other areas. Komi Old Believers of Vashka and Upper Vychegda believe that casting (kört öbraz, yrgön öbraz) has more grace than written images; at the household level, they explain it more by practicality. They say with enthusiasm that the metal images are real, they were brought (vaema tor), made by knowledgeable people, and the hand-written ones were of local production (as karöm) (author's field materials 1999).

Cast objects are used in ceremonies accompanying the birth and first years of a child's life: at baptism, the water in the font is consecrated in an image, the crucifix is ​​placed in the cradle of the baby, which is associated with traditional ideas about the cross as a talisman. In wedding rituals, folding, it is customary to give images as a dowry; despite the existing ban, in a number of cases the folds are taken apart so that the daughter takes her husband home with her. Casting is mandatory in funeral rituals: at the moment the body is placed in the coffin, when the dead are commemorated, cast images and crosses cut into grave monuments (now they don’t cut them, but bring them with them to the cemetery). Cast icons, folds, crosses are used to bless water during church holidays.

In the popular environment, there is a certain classification of casting: division into female and male (according to plots, place of storage - in shevnos ud., yin pov vvch.), personal and exhibited in the shrine, secular and "Old Believer" (they did not differ in images) (field materials of the author 1999).
Copper casting, different in iconography, plots, is used for similar purposes by the Russian Old Believers of the Lower Pechora; among the Komi non-Old Believers it is less common, which allows us to speak of casting as a specific feature of the culture of the Old Believers. Given the role of casting in rituals, the specifics of which determine confessional affiliation, the range of objects cannot be accidental.
Based on iconographic and technological differences, it is possible to determine to which consent the owner belonged, to trace the contacts of the Komi Old Believers with the Old Believer communities in other regions, as well as the connections between communities within the republic, to more accurately determine the distribution areas of the Old Believers.

Udora (dd. Koptyuga, Muftyuga, Vilgort, Ostrovo, ss. Chuprovo, Puchkoma, Vazhgort). Pomor casting of the 19th century prevails, there are items of Moscow production (Preobrazhenka). It should be noted the presence of castings belonging to the Central Russian tradition (Guslitsa), presumably dating from the 18th century, these are not only icons and folds, but also crosses bearing the title "I.H.Ts.H." Such objects are rarer, few in number (p. Chuprovo, Koptyuga, Ostrovo).
It is believed that the Udora Old Believers were Filippovites, from the 60s of the 19th century, secrets appeared, the presence of Guslitsky casting, and, as a rule, earlier, suggests that supporters of other persuasions lived here. Yu.V. Gagarin reports about the residence of two priests in the village of Kirik. (1980). It is known that the Guslitsky casting was used by the Old Believers - the priests, as well as the fact that the crosses with the title were accepted by the Fedoseevites (after 1751, the "Titlovites" who separated from them).
The Old Believers of Udora maintained contacts with Pomorye, Moscow, Ust-Tsilma (Gagarin Yu.V. 1973).
The predominance of Pomeranian castings allows us to speak about a relatively homogeneous confessional affiliation of the population of these villages.

Ust-Kulomsky district. In the Old Believer villages of Voch, Kerchomye, there is Guslitsky, Central Russian casting, for the most part of the 19th century; Pomeranian, Moscow (Preobrazhenka-?) casting of the 19th century; there are specimens that are difficult to date and attribute. It was not possible to reveal the predominance of one tradition. However, the most popular subjects can be named: The crucifixion and images of the Virgin (village Kerchomya, Voch). During the funeral, it is obligatory to have a cast icon on the chest of the deceased, if it is a man, then it should be the Crucifixion, if the woman is the Mother of God (field diaries of the author, 1999). Which confirms the information about the residence in these villages of the supporters of the Spasov (the so-called deaf netovshchina) consent. It is believed that the Spasov copper casting can be distinguished by the fact that the Image Not Made by Hands was certainly placed on the heading, and only 2 types of icons were common: images of the Savior and the Virgin (Old Believers, 1996).
Copper casting is recorded in the village. Derevyansk - 7 items, the village of Kanava, the village of Vapolka - one each. 6 (images, folds, cross) are identified as Guslitsky castings (most of them have a rectangular pommel “Savior on the edge”), 2 folds are Pomeranian (Moscow-?). In Derevyansk, the casting was removed from the church in the 1920s; in the village of Vapolka, the fold was found in an abandoned house.
Taking into account trade relations with Cherdyn, contacts with the population of the upper Pechora, it can be assumed that representatives of other consents, possibly Pomeranian, lived on the upper Vychegda, as evidenced by the spread of Pomeranian castings (crosses, folds). The existence of Guslitsky crosses and folds of the 19th century suggests that Old Believers-priests lived in this area.

Improvement. Of the 35 items, 15 were purchased in Syktyvkar; 6 - in the Sysolsky district (p. Pyeldino); 3 - in Syktyvdinsky (village of Palevitsy, village of Zelenets); 2 each - in Koygorodsky, Ust-Vymsky, where the others came from is unknown. Casting from different centers is presented: Pomeranian, Moscow, Guslitsky. These are folds, icons, icons, crosses dating back to the 19th century.

Scientific archive of the Komi Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Fund 1, op. 13, file 159. Scientific report of the 1967 ethnographic expedition to the Troitsko-Pechora region of the Komi ASSR

“A pure image, worthy of veneration”... These words can be used to define copper-cast icons and crosses created by Old Believer craftsmen in the vast expanses of Russia - in the hermitages of Pomorye and Moscow workshops, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in hidden forges in the Urals and Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. until the beginning of the 20th century.

The new period in the history of copper foundry is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after splitting the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of book writing, icon painting and applied art. Like priceless relics, ancient copper-cast icons were carefully inserted into icon cases and placed in wooden picturesque or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the Old Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as if they had been cleansed by fire” and “not created by the Nikonians” received wide reverence among the people. The variety of form, iconography, composition and decoration of Old Believer copper-cast crosses, icons and folds is amazing. Among this huge array of preserved copper-cast plastics, one can identify works created in specific workshops. It is no coincidence that already in the first half of the XIX century. there were such varieties, or categories of “cast copper crosses and icons” - Pomeranian, Guslitsky (or Zagarsky) and Pogostsky, which were widely used among the Old Believers of different communities and directions.

When looking at this bright and original layer of Russian applied art, one should always remember that the development of copper foundry took place in very special conditions, contrary to the law and the will of the authorities. Russia's need for non-ferrous metal, so necessary for military needs, caused the appearance of decrees of Peter I in 1722 and 1723, prohibiting not only the production, sale, but also the existence of copper icons and crosses.

According to the effect of these decrees, only crosses - vests and chest panagias were allowed. The Old Believers considered only the eight-pointed cross to be “correct”, which was depicted in the center of the male and female pectoral cross. “May God rise again and thwart Him…” - these words of prayer have become an obligatory part of the design of the turnover of crosses - vests.

Despite the existence of this law, which was in force in Russia for 160 years, copper work in the Old Believer environment, among forests, in hidden sketes, reached an extraordinary height of artistic embodiment.

Icons, crosses and folds made in the foundries of the Vygovsky Pomeranian community became the brightest page in the history of Russian sacred plastic arts. This Old Believer monastery, founded in 1694 on the Vyg River, in Karelia, considered itself the successor of the ancient Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, and its founders, Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, were their heavenly patrons. It is no coincidence that the images of these saints became widespread both on icons and on folding doors. Already in the first half of the XVIII century. Vygovskaya Hermitage became the largest economic, religious and cultural center of the Old Believers. The handwritten books, icons, small plastic arts created on Vygu were distinguished by the unity of the artistic style, which received the name "Pomeranian".

To meet the prayer needs of the adherents of the Pomeranian bespriest consent, first of all, “correct” crosses were needed. Copper-cast Pomeranian crosses with the image of the "Crucifixion of Christ" were cast in an eight-pointed form and a strictly defined composition - on the upper end was depicted the "Savior Not Made by Hands" with the inscription "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God." The same composition is repeated on a small Pomeranian cross, the central image of the pictorial icon, which is distinguished by the subtlety of writing and a pronounced decorative sound.

With further complication of the form, the cross received side rectangular plates with paired images of the upcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion. Similar icon-case crosses often cut not only into icon-case frames, but also decorated picturesque icons. These crosses were cast in various sizes - from very small ones, the surface of which was often decorated with multi-colored enamels - to large gilded ones, decorated with exquisite ornaments on the back. Excellent shaping, fine casting and careful finishing - all these distinctive features of the Pomeranian small plastic arts were achieved by the high professionalism of master chasers, casters and enamellers.

These signs were clearly manifested when creating a miniature composition "The Savior Not Made by Hands", decorated with rare dark red enamel.

The main types of products of the famous Vygovsky "mednitsa" were not only crosses, but also folds with different composition of wings (two-leaf, three-leaf, four-leaf).

Among the repertoire of Vygov masters, a special place belonged to small double-leaf folds, which received the name "Pomor panagia". The form of the ancient Russian panagia, which had developed in small plastic, was creatively reworked by Pomeranian craftsmen. On square doors in medallions on a smooth dark blue enamel background there are compositions with images of the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity. The decorative decoration of another fold is distinguished by a combination of a white and pink background with spectacular contrasting yellow dots on dark “corners”. The reverse side of such miniatures also received decoration - in the form of one strict composition with the image of the eight-pointed Calvary cross or in addition with a pattern in the form of a large rosette flower, colored with vitreous enamels. Later, the Pomeranian craftsmen slightly increased the size of the folding and supplemented it with a third wing with the image of the Crucifixion of Christ. These miniature pieces, decorated with bright enamels with contrasting dots, are reminiscent of precious pieces of jewelry created by ancient Russian craftsmen. Such small folds could be worn as folding pectoral icons.

The same chest icons created by the Pomeranian masters were small three-leaved folds with the image of the Deesis composition. A combination of dark turquoise and white enamel, embossed rosettes-stars on a smooth surface of the background and rays on halos distinguishes a miniature work of the first half of the 18th century. Everything in this fold is admirable - the plastic development of the image and the thoughtful decoration of the front and back sides.

The most popular among the Pomeranian plastics was the new iconographic version of the copper-cast three-leaf fold "Deesis with Selected Saints", which received the name "nine" by the number of depicted figures on the wings. In a certain composition of the saints, each of whom was dedicated to the chapels in the prayer rooms of the Vygovsky community, the idea of ​​the intercession of the Mother of God and the saints of the created monastery was embodied. The variety of decorative decoration of the folds, decorated with multi-colored vitreous enamels, decorated with contrasting dots or a rare gamut using a pink tone, is striking. On the back of the left wing, a composition with the image of the eight-pointed Golgotha ​​cross was traditionally cast, the surface of the other wing could be decorated with a large rosette or cartouche. On the surface of a smooth frame, after visiting the Vygovskaya monastery, it was possible to carve a memorable date, initials or the name of the owner.

The second version of the “Deesis with Selected Saints” folding was also famous, on the side wings of which a different composition of saints was depicted. The compositions of the wings of this fold have become widespread in the form of separate small "one-top" icons.

The program product of the Pomeranian casters was a four-fold fold, or, as it was solemnly called, “large festive sections”. It is believed that originally a model of a large three-leaved fold was made, on the stamps of which the Twelfth Feasts are represented. Later, keeled kokoshniks and a fourth section were added to such square sections - this is how the image of a full four-fold fold was formed. On the first three sections, the hallmarks represent the Twelfth Feasts, and on the fourth - scenes of veneration of the images of the Mother of God. The wholeness of a single creative concept distinguishes this copper-cast work of art, which has become a marching iconostasis. On the reverse side of one of the sections, a composition is traditionally cast with the image of the Calvary cross in an ornamental headband frame. A feature of individual specimens will be the decoration of the back of the sash with a magnificent relief ornament of curling shoots with a cartouche in the center. At the request of the owner, a commemorative inscription could be carved on the surface of such a smooth frame.

After the creation of this four-leaf fold, Vygov historians could probably say about the mentor Andrei Denisov that he "brought and arranged in the proper order the current form in the copper-cast sections, which had hitherto been in absent-mindedness."

It is still unknown who was the author of the four-fold folding model? Among the foundry masters on Vyga, whose names we know from written sources, were Novgorodians and people from different cities and villages. Both scribes and icon painters, who painted pictorial images for the worshipers of the Vygovskaya monastery, could take part in the creation of samples of Pomeranian miniature plastic art.

The high professionalism of the Vygov masters consisted in creating a collapsible folding model, which made it possible to cast not only icons in the form of separate sets of independent hallmarks, but also various iconographic variants of three-fold foldings depicting festive compositions.

One of the most revered among the "desert dwellers" and numerous pilgrims will be a three-leaf fold with the image of the twelfth holidays "Assumption of the Virgin. Resurrection of Christ (Descent into Hell). Epiphany". A special relationship to this type of folding is associated with the main cathedral chapel of the Vygovsky hostel and its patronal feasts.

The accumulated skills of foundry business contributed to the wide scope of the craft - the production of copper crosses and alignments was carried out in 5 sketes of the Vygovsky hostel. Products cast in these remote forges entered the monastery and then were transported throughout the Russian land. Handwritten texts of decrees-instructions on foundry and enamel art, compiled by Pomeranian masters, have been preserved. They shared their experience, advised how to prepare the ground for casting, grind the enamel and put different colors on the alignments and crosses. “Then practice yourself in every business and in all sciences and you will understand clearly and you will be skilled in everything” - with these words the unknown master ends his instructions on foundry and enameling.

Camping iconostases also belonged to the circle of Pomeranian plastic arts, which included in their composition a cross - a crucifix surrounded by hallmarks depicting festive scenes and wings of a Pomeranian panagia, and in rare cases - individual miniature images. Similar small pectoral icons with images of the Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk, the holy martyrs Kirik and Ulita, and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker accompanied a person during his wanderings and travels across the vast expanses of the Russian land. It is no coincidence that the Pomeranian masters created another version of the three-leaf fold, on the wings of which three different plots are connected: “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy. Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita with Selected Saints. Such an elegant gilded fold, cast in one of the skete workshops, like a Pomeranian relic, became a precious prayer image until the end of life ...

Copper-cast icons, crosses and folds, created by talented Pomor casters and enamellers, became models for numerous workshops throughout Russia, including small handicraft establishments in Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and other provinces. Thanks to the work of these rural foundry masters, copper icons and crosses, which became widespread among the people, became a widely accessible type of applied art.

The main place in the assortment of products of these handicraft workshops was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. First of all, the Guslitsky masters cast large eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the “Crucifixion of Christ” and the inscription “INCI” (Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews). Such crosses have become widespread among the Old Believers-priests who accept the priesthood. “The cross is the guardian of the entire Universe, the Cross is the beauty of the church…” - this text has become an indispensable element in the design of the circulation of crosses, which differ not only in size, but also in decorative design. A small cross with a high-relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ, cut into the middle of a picturesque three-leaf fold, is decorated with gilding.

Iconic crosses, large and small, surrounded by icon-brands and crowned with images of cherubs and seraphim on high pins, received particular popularity among the people. A clear compositional solution with a relief image of the "Crucifixion of Christ", a combination of stylized floral and scaly ornaments, a two-color enamel range distinguish one of the expressive works of the Guslitsky masters. The detailed iconographic program of the large kiot cross, surrounded by 18 hallmarks with images of festive scenes, is a bright end to the creative search of the Guslitsky foundry masters. Similar crosses, often embedded in picturesque icons or tinted boards, became decorations for the interiors of many Old Believer churches.

From one handicraft workshop of the second half of the 18th century, perhaps, there are several works - a small icon "Assumption of the Virgin" and middle folds "Selected holidays", "Deisus with selected saints". The same shape of the pommel with the image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands", similar colors of enamels, covering the surface of objects with a dense layer - these common technological, iconographic and stylistic features make it possible to attribute these products to the same circle of copper-cast plastic. Later, folds with a two-row composition "Deesis with Selected Saints" will be cast with a massive heading, the decoration of which will be a large flower rosette or the image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands".

To the works of the end of the XVIII century. belongs to a small cross - a crucifix, decorated with green and blue enamel, with three-part cuneiform ends of the branches. A feature of this cross is the image at the lower end of the composition "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nikita, beating the demon".

To the best examples of copper-cast plastics of the 18th century. belongs to the three-leaf fold "Savior of Smolensk with the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky", decorated with an elegant color combination of yellow, green and blue enamel. The decorative sound of the image was enhanced by white enamel, partially preserved on the centerpiece frame. The same composition of saints is made on the wings of the Our Lady Hodegetria of Smolensk folding, crowned with a figured top. “I put all my hope in You, Mother of God…” - these words of prayer, not only decorating the copper-cast image, but also filling it with sounding content, became the embodiment of a special veneration for the image of the Most Holy Theotokos.

In the XVIII century. a different composition of images on the folding doors also developed. Festive plots complement the composition of the fold, in the middle of which, on a smooth surface of a blue-green enamel background, there is a relief image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

Following the ancient Russian traditions, the form of the Guslitsky and Zagarsky tricuspid folds, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis, will find the widest distribution in compositions with images of the Virgin and selected saints, widely revered among the people. The large “creators” “Archangel Michael with Selected Feasts” and “The Passionate Mother of God with Selected Saints”, having the general shape of a keel-shaped completion of the centerpiece and wings and decorated with geometric ornaments, are traditional works of the work of the Guslitsky foundry masters of the 19th century.

It is when you look at these simple objects, made in small rural copper establishments, that you begin to understand and feel what a very special role the copper-cast plastic played in the everyday life of a Russian person, with its joys and hardships. The image of St. Antipas of Pergamon, presented both on small light icons and on folds, was prayed for deliverance from a toothache. The wide veneration of St. Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, the patroness of family and trade, was embodied in a small three-leaved travel fold and in an elegant gilded image topped with a pommel with six cherubs.

The Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita, revered as patrons of the family and children, were depicted both on small folds with selected saints and as part of four-part compositions that repeated Pomeranian miniature images. Another composition, crowned with a complex figured pommel, includes “one-top” icons “Saint Nikita beating the demon”, “Martyrs Kirik and Julitta”, “Our Lady of Kazan” and “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker”.

Such simple and modest images could be made in numerous workshops of the tanned villages of the Moscow region. So, in the villages of the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, which were "fed" by the copper industry, up to 150 establishments are known. But only a few of these workshops were engaged in casting crosses, scapulars and folds. In these rural establishments with traditional production, which included a forge and a “printing house” - a room where “earth” was stored and forms were printed, simple and cheap products were cast, extremely rarely decorated with enamels. .

The masters of these small handicraft establishments tried to expand their assortment and improve the quality of their products. So, in 1882, at the well-known All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition, held in Moscow, Ivan Tarasov, a peasant from the village of Novoye, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province, was awarded "for copper images of very clean work and fairly cheap prices." Later, in 1902, another master Fyodor Frolov from the same village, who owned a small handicraft establishment, presented his copper crosses at the All-Russian Handicraft and Industrial Exhibition in St. Petersburg.

The proximity of the repertoire of Zagarsk and Guslitsk copper-cast plastics and its widespread existence do not allow us to more definitely distinguish the products of each of these numerous rural workshops. So, at the beginning of the XX century. a well-known researcher of Pomeranian literature and casting V.G. Druzhinin classified all the plastics produced in the Moscow province as “guslitsky or tan” and noted such a sign as “lightness”.

Such really light were the products of the Guslitsky masters. Among these works, the casting made in the village of Antsiforovo stood out, which was sold in Moscow by weight by the pood and much more expensive than tan. But we believe that the main distinguishing feature of the Guslitsky sculpture should be recognized as the increased decorativeness of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds. The surface of each Guslitsky image is filled with an ornament in the form of curling shoots, stylized curls or simple geometric elements in the form of triangles, dots or stripes.

Plant shoots with small leaves and flowers adorn the image of the holy martyrs Antipas, Florus and Laurus. Another plant motif in the form of tall shoots with large flower buds, similar to the ornament of the Guslitsky handwritten books, was used by craftsmen to decorate the icon “St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom”. The openwork pommel with the composition "Tsar Tsar", crowned with images of cherubs and seraphim on high pins, will become one of the distinguishing elements of Guslitsky copper-cast works.

The image of the Mother of God, the “warm intercessor”, in Guslitsky plastic will receive its own unique artistic solution. The middle of the fold "Our Lady of Kazan" with the pommel "Savior Not Made by Hands", "Old Testament Trinity" and two cherubs is distinguished by an elegant combination of dark blue and white enamel. A winding shoot with flowers, adorning the halo of the Virgin and repeating in the background as the embodiment in metal of the words of the chant “Like the Unfading Color, we glorify Thee Bogomati”, will become an integral part of the pattern of the Guslitsky icons.

The prayer chant will “sound” on the frame of the copper-cast icon “Protection of the Mother of God”, decorated with vitreous enamel in white, blue and green colors with rare spots of yellow. We believe that a special veneration of this image is associated with the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos at the Rogozhsky cemetery in Moscow, since the 18th century. which became the center of the Old Believers-priests.

The image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, merciful and quick to help the intercessor of "everyone in trouble," will find the brightest artistic embodiment in the copper-cast plastic of the Guslitsky masters. The openwork pommel, the richness of ornamental motifs in the form of a shoot against the background and the nimbus of the saint, stripes of scrolls in combination with blue-black and white enamel create an image of increased decorativeness. Another large image, the entire surface of which is woven with ornaments and decorated with an elegant combination of white, bright blue and yellow enamel, will complete the creative search of the Guslitsky masters.

In the foundries of the village of Nikologorsky Pogost on Vladimir land, craftsmen produced copper-cast plastic, which had completely different features. The masters took into account the increased interest of the Old Believers in the Old Russian "Donikon" works and learned to imitate and even forge icons and crosses in a special way to look like old designs.

The products of these workshops were bought in bulk by offen merchants, who then not only sold icons and crosses in the surrounding villages, but also delivered the goods to the fair in Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. For copper icons, the so-called "pogost" casting, we believe, is characterized by a special plastic development of the image, repeating ancient Russian compositions, forms and ornaments. The skladen "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisk)", close to the works of ancient Russian wooden carving, and the openwork icon "Saints Boris and Gleb", made in the technique of perforated casting, are expressive examples of the products of these rural establishments.

Among the Old Believers, “ancient” copper-cast icons were especially popular, distinguished by a high-relief image of the Almighty Savior, with a two-fingered blessing gesture of the right hand and a closed Gospel in the left. The composition of the icon is completed by fields with a relief text of a hymn dedicated to the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord: “He was transfigured on the mountain, Christ God, showed his disciples His glory…”. To confirm the “antiquity” of the created image, the masters cast on the back of such icons a relief date “ZRV SUMMER” (7102 = 1594), obviously associated with a certain historical event of the late 16th century. The same date is cast on the back of the cross - a crucifix, repeating the iconography of one of the revered ancient Russian samples.

Other features are crosses, icons and folds made by Moscow Old Believer workshops, which make up a huge layer of copper-cast plastic. The artistic casting of the Old Believers of Moscow has become a new stage in the development of this type of applied art. The formation of the largest Old Believer centers in the city contributed to the rapid development of foundry business. In 1771, during the plague, Rogozhskoe (priest) and Preobrazhenskoe (bespopovskoe Fedoseevskoe) cemeteries were founded in different parts of Moscow.

Copper-cast products for the community of the Rogozhsky cemetery were supplied from Guslitsky villages near Moscow. The situation was different with the production of copper crosses and icons for the community of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in the Lefortovo part of Moscow. In a short time, at the expense of wealthy merchants-trustees, workshops were created for the correspondence of books and the production of pictorial and copper-cast icons. It is known that the founder of the community, Ilya Kovylin, traveled to Vyg and brought the text of the charter from there, in the image of the Vygovskaya monastery, the construction of the architectural ensemble of the Transfiguration Cemetery was carried out.

We believe that Ilya Kovylin also got acquainted with the foundry workshops, which brought significant income to the Vygovskaya monastery. Already at the end of the 18th century, in the immediate vicinity of the Preobrazhensky cemetery, on the territory of private households, foundries were established, which began to produce crosses and folds “like Pomeranian ones”. These workshops primarily worked for their communities in Moscow and other cities, whose parishioners "prayed only copper images, and then the work of their co-religionists."

After long disputes with the Pomorians about the correct form and inscriptions, a well-thought-out and reasonable program developed by the Vygov mentors was embodied in the composition of the crosses made in Moscow. Following the Pomeranian iconography, the image of the “Savior Not Made by Hands” was depicted on the upper end of the cross, the inscription was cast over the “Crucifixion of Christ”: “King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God”. The front surface of this cross - a crucifix, made in the second half of the 19th century, is decorated with multi-colored enamels, emphasizing the main elements of the created composition.

A similar inscription: “King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God” was originally made on the cross, which became the center of the composition of a large pictorial icon in a silver setting by Moscow masters of the early 19th century. But obviously, at the request of the owner, at the upper end of the copper-cast cross, the monogram "IC XC" was erased and the inscription "INCI" was engraved.

Moscow masters were constantly working on expanding the range and decoration of copper-cast works, including small crosses, which were in great demand. So, in the composition of the property of the Old Believers who lived at the Transfiguration Cemetery, crosses are often mentioned - crucifixes "of a smaller size with the Mother of God and the Apostle John the Theologian." For stability, such crosses began to be cast with a small trapezoidal base. A similar extended lower end is also made on the cross - crucifixion with three-part wedge-shaped ends of the branches, the surface of which is decorated with multi-colored enamels.

Iconic crosses with the forthcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus centurion were widely spread among the Moscow Old Believers. A feature of another casting was the date "1879." and the monogram "M.R.S.Kh.", owned by Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, one of the famous master chasers.

In the traditions of the Pomeranian foundry art, the three-leaf fold “Deesis with Selected Saints” is made, decorated with dense gilding. On the back of this fold, the composition depicting the eight-pointed Golgotha ​​cross in a figured cartouche is repeated.

In archival documents of the second half of the XIX century. three-leaved folds with the image of the Deesis composition, which received a new decorative solution in Moscow copper establishments, are often mentioned. The high quality of casting, which conveys even the smallest details on the faces and figures of the Savior, the Mother of God and John the Baptist, distinguishes these samples of the late 19th century. The surface of the flaps is “woven” with a solid floral ornament, covered with vitreous enamels. On the back, in a decorated frame, against the backdrop of an expanded panorama of the city of Jerusalem, the Calvary Cross is depicted, protruding in relief against a sky-blue enamel background.

We believe that the Moscow masters embodied the idea of ​​a large three-part "Deesis", which is a composite composition with a high-relief image of the "Savior on the Throne" and openwork images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel.

Among the Moscow works, the “two-top” image of the “Savior of Smolensky” gained wide popularity. In the iconography of this composition, the kneeling St. Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam Khutynsky reflected a locally revered pictorial image that was on the tower of the Moscow Kremlin and was associated with the capture of Smolensk in 1514.

The appearance in copper-cast plastic of a small double-leaf folding “Deesis. Guardian Angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker”, perhaps also associated with the work of Moscow masters. The idea of ​​heavenly patronage of the Transfiguration community, embodied in the Deesis, was completed in the images of the guardian angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. The appearance of this Moscow version of the double-leaf fold could be associated with the main prayer room in the male half of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery - the Assumption Chapel and its chapel in the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

The design of the reverse side of this small fold repeats the composition of the famous Pomeranian panagia. A similar double-leaf fold with the image of the "Old Testament Trinity" and "Our Lady of the Sign", decorated with white vitreous enamel, is a vivid example of the work of Moscow enamellers.

The masters repeatedly turned to the creation of various versions of the Old Testament Trinity composition, among which a large-format image stands out, distinguished by a well-thought-out and balanced composition. The “double-topped” image “Old Testament Trinity”, which became widespread in the Old Believer environment, is distinguished by the monogram of the master R.S. Khrustalev.

This Moscow master chaser owns a large and diverse circle of copper-cast plastic artefacts, in which a special place is occupied by the four-leaf fold “Twelfth Holidays”, made according to the model of R.S. Khrustalev. Larger dimensions of the fold, frames with embossed inscriptions above the hallmarks, multi-colored enamels of the traditional Moscow range distinguish this reworked version of the Pomor fold.

The initials R.S. Khrustalev and his student (?), master monogramist S.I.B. Numerous small “one-top” icons were noted, repeating the hallmarks of a large four-fold folding with the image of the Twelfth Holidays.

Such castings could have been made in one of the copper establishments that existed in the Lefortovo part of Moscow on Ninth Company Street. The history of the workshop, which belonged to the Moscow bourgeois Irina and Aksinya Timofeev, is being restored according to documents from the first half of the 19th century. . It is known that the products of this copper establishment were sold not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia. It is with this workshop that we can confidently connect the appearance of the model of the “double-topped” image of the “Our Lady of Kazan”. The combination of multi-colored enamels in the center of the icon and on the wide margins, decorated with a stylized ornament in the form of a vine, creates a bright elegant image. The icons "Our Lady of Kazan", created according to the model of the master Ignat Timofeev, were repeated in numerous castings of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. .

In the second half of the XIX century. the history of this copper institution is connected with the new owner Ekaterina Petrova. The works of the workshop, created during this period of its existence, include the casting of such a large-format image as “The Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk”.

The image of the Assumption of the Virgin belongs to the masterpieces of Moscow copper foundry and enamel art. The multi-figure composition of the centerpiece is surrounded by wide margins, decorated with complex intertwining ornamentation. When looking at this copper-cast image, decorated with multi-colored enamels and gilding, one gets the full impression of an icon in a precious setting. The effective use of contrasting colors of dark blue and white enamel enhances the decorative effect of this piece. It is possible that the original image was created for the Cathedral of the Assumption prayer room of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in Moscow. In the 1870s - 1880s. the model of this large-scale composition was repeatedly "corrected" or "minted" by Rodion Khrustalev.

One of the brightest works of the famous master is the icon "St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom". The composition of the icon with the solemn setting of the figures of saints and the relief image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands", a stylized floral ornament in the form of tall shoots with large buds, decor in the form of stripes of blue, green, blue-black, yellow and white enamel - all this creates an image of increased decorativeness . The basis for this bright creation was a modest composition by the Guslitsky master. Later R.S. Khrustalev repeatedly worked on recreating the image of the three ecumenical teachers and saints, using the model of the first half of the 19th century. Monogram R.S. Khrustalev, the image “The Fiery Ascension of the Prophet Elijah” was also noted, which received special reverence among the Old Believers.

About the high quality of the work of the Moscow master chasers, the memoirs that belonged to the Krasnoselsky caster Anfim Serov have been preserved: “... The uterus (model) ... is made by a master engraver. The work is very difficult, requiring a good master-practitioner… The fact is that the model is pressed into the ground, then when it is removed from the ground, it should come out freely, without taking the ground with it… To make such a full-fledged model, the masters were only in Moscow…” . Such masters were Ignat Timofeev, Rodion Khrustalev, S.I.B. and other chasers, often known to us only by the initials on numerous copper-cast crosses, icons and folds of Moscow origin.

A small copper-cast icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prochorus in prayer to the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands against the backdrop of the architectural ensemble of the Transfiguration Cemetery had a memorable character for the Moscow Old Believers. The copper image of the “Prophet Daniel”, a saint named after Daniil Vikulin, one of the founders of the Vygovsky Pomeranian monastery, had a similar memorable meaning. In contrast to the Pomeranian samples of the XVIII century. with a deaf smooth background, Moscow castings with the image of a saint are made using the technique of perforated casting.

Moscow foundry masters were constantly working on creating new iconographic variants of large and small compositions with images of saints. The image of the martyr Tryphon, depicted with a bird in his hand, was widely revered among the Old Believers. An extended version of the story about the rescued princess was reflected in numerous castings depicting the scene of the “Miracle of George about the serpent”. Saints John the Warrior, Charalampius and Boniface, depicted in the middle of a small copper-cast icon, were revered as an assistant

Casting, established in Russian church art in the pre-Mongol era, is experiencing a second birth at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, the manufacture of cast icons, folds, and various crosses became the property of the Old Believers almost exclusively.

The exception was the production of pectoral crosses, which continued to be cast in workshops that offered their products to the dominant Church.

The distribution of cast icons in the Old Believers, and to the greatest extent in non-priestly consent, with the almost complete indifference of the official Church to it, is explained, first of all, by the historical conditions for the existence of the Old Believers.

For two and a half centuries, the Old Believers were severely persecuted by the state authorities, not being able to openly build their churches and monasteries. At the same time, priests and bespopovtsy were not in the same position. The Old Believers, accepting the priesthood, who dreamed of finding a bishop and restoring the hierarchy, tried in every opportunity to legalize themselves, to regulate their relations with the authorities, because they needed a condescending attitude towards the priests who came to them from the dominant Church.

The Old Believers-bespriests were sure that the spiritual accession of the Antichrist had already taken place, therefore the true church can only be persecuted. This conviction found its extreme expression in the ideology of the consent of wanderers or runners. It was difficult to constantly transport large temple icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is in the non-priestly concords, mainly among the Pomeranians, that copper casting flourishes.

The set of plots of Old Believer copper casting differs significantly from the corresponding range of pre-Mongolian cast products. In the Old Believer tinsels, the lunnitsa, characteristic of the transition from paganism to Christianity, with crosses attached to them, were not cast. Round cruciform pendants were not produced, in which the sign of the cross was inscribed in the ancient solar symbol. Coils, common in the pre-Mongolian and early post-Mongolian eras, were not made.

At the same time, the subject matter of the plot is enriched with many renditions known from the usual icon painting. Most of the iconographic scenes, one way or another, are reproduced in copper casting.

Statistical analysis of copper icons allows us to compile a fairly accurate table of the prevalence of individual plots in Old Believer copper casting:

• Image of the Mother of God - 35%

• Saints - 45%

• Holidays - 11%

• Image of Christ - 9%

Image of the Mother of God:

• Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy - 35%

• Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk - 25%

• Our Lady of Kazan - 20%

• Our Lady of the Sign - 10%

• Our Lady of Tikhvin - 5%

• Other izvodov - 5%

• Nikola - 40%

• Selected saints (Kirik and Julitta, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, Paraskeva, Catherine and Barbara) - 12%

• Antipa - 10%

• George - 4%

• Paraskeva - 4%

• Mozhaisky - 3%

• Kirik and Julitta - 2%

• The rest - 25%

Holidays:

• Christmas - 23%

• Nativity of the Virgin - 19%

• Resurrection (Descent into Hell) - 14%

• Trinity Old Testament - 12%

• Crucifixion of Christ - 6%

• The rest - 26%

Images of Christ:

• Deesis - 82%

• Savior Icon Not Made by Hands - 6%

• Spas Almighty - 5%

• Week - 5%

• The rest - 2%

Images of Christ

The Lord Jesus Christ, although he is the Head of the Church, is represented in iconography by a much smaller number of iconographic types (with many versions of each type) than the Mother of God and the saints. This is probably due to the fact that it is much easier for a sinful person to turn with a prayer request to a person - the Mother of God or a saint, than to God, even if it is the Incarnate God Jesus Christ.

The most common iconographic type in casting is the Deesis. The Russian word "Deisus" is a corruption of the Greek word "Deisis", which means prayer. Deesis is an image of Jesus Christ sitting on a throne, to the right of which is the Mother of God, to the left is John the Baptist. Each side flap of such a fold bears the image of selected saints. Most often this is Metropolitan Philip, the Apostle John the Theologian, St. Nicholas - on the left wing; guardian angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty - on the right. This selection of saints is not accidental. Zosima, Savvaty and Philip are saints whose deeds were accomplished in the Solovetsky Monastery, very revered by the Old Believers of Vyga, where the first such folds were cast. The presence of a guardian angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker, the patron saint of travelers, shows that the "nines" were "travel" icons. They were taken on the road, worn as wearable icons. The Calvary cross on the back of one of the wings made it possible to do without a separately worn pectoral cross. Folds have been preserved, the middle of which was an ark divided into four parts, of a sufficiently large depth, tightly closed with a plate with the image of Deesis. Such a fold could be used to store holy relics or to transfer the Holy Gifts, precious for the Old Believers of the bespriests, consecrated by pre-Nikon priests.

The second, less common, version of the "nine" has wings with a different set of saints: on the left are depicted - the Great Martyr George the Victorious, the Hieromartyrs Antipas and Blasius; on the right - the Monk John the Old Cave and the martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

There is also a Deesis in the form of three-leaved folds of a different type, the middle of which is a half-length image of the Lord Jesus Christ, the wings are half-length images of the Virgin (a version similar to Bogolyubskaya with a scroll in her hands) and John the Baptist. The image of John the Baptist is varied. Most often, he is depicted as a winged angel of the desert with a bowl in his hands, in which is the image of the infant Christ; this is a symbolic image of the Baptism of the Lord. The location of the Divine Infant can be different, both from left to right, and vice versa. In some folds, the right wing represented John without wings, with his hands raised up in a refined gesture.

Sometimes the centerpiece of such a Deesis was cast separately. In this case, he turned into the image of the Lord Almighty. Special images of the Lord Almighty are also known, both half-length and in the form of the Savior on the throne. As a rule, they are of an older age.

More ancient are the folds, in which the middle is the Deesis, in which all three figures are presented in full growth; the sashes of such folds can be very different. A fairly common fold, in the middle of which, below the full Deesis, are half-length images of four saints: St. Zosima, St. Nicholas, St. Leontius, St. Savvaty. Sometimes other saints were also depicted. The top of such a fold could be the Image of Christ Not Made by Hands or decorated with a simple geometric ornament.

A cast icon is known, on which, below the Deesis, there are full-length figures of St. Zosima, the Guardian Angel, St. Nicholas and St. Savvaty.

The name "Deisus" is sometimes attributed to a very rare image, in the upper part of which is placed a half-length image of the youth Christ (Spas Emmanuel), on the sides of which are the figures of the Mother of God and St. Nicholas.

Another peculiar copper-cast "Deesis" consists of three large-sized icons, united by a common style. The middle one, which has a pommel of a complex shape, is Christ the Almighty, sitting on a throne, the two side ones are vertically elongated slotted icons of the archangels Michael and Gabriel. One of the most ancient images of Christ the Savior, which also existed in copper casting, is the so-called Savior of Smolensk. This iconographic type is a full-length depiction of Christ, adorned with a massive tsata, at whose feet St. Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam of Khutyn fall down. On the sides of the Savior in the upper part of the icon are images of angels holding instruments of passion in their hands. The Savior of Smolensk is found in the form of individual icons, often decorated with multi-colored enamels, and as centerpieces for various folds.

Another iconographic type of Christ the Savior, depicted surrounded by saints, presented in copper casting, received the incomprehensible name "Week", although its correct name is "Savior with the upcoming ones." This is the Deesis, in which the figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul are added to the images of the Mother of God and John the Baptist, as well as the crouching Zosimas and Savvatius. In the "Weeks" of a larger format, the figures of the Apostle John the Theologian and St. John Chrysostom, as well as kneeling Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Sergius of Radonezh, are added.

The Image of the Savior not made by hands is most often found in casting in the form of the tops of individual icons and folds. This tradition originates in the most ancient examples of casting, and the iconography of the image changes very noticeably from the exquisite 17th century designs, which depicted the board with its intricate folds, to simple, almost schematic images of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Image Not Made by Hands is also found at the top of cast crosses of various sizes. It is this type of cross, which, in addition to the Image Not Made by Hands in the pommel, is distinguished by the absence of the image of the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove" and "Pilat's title" - the letters INCI, was considered the only correct cross by the Old Believers of the Pomeranian consent .

The Image Not Made by Hands is also found in the form of individual small-sized images. He is known mainly in two versions; moreover, the one in which the Image Not Made by Hands is surrounded by an inscription is more ancient and rare.

Rare ancient cast icons are images of the Descent from the Cross, which depict the naked torso of the dead Christ with arms folded crosswise on his chest, resting on the edge of the coffin. On the sides of the cross are visible figures of the upcoming Virgin and John the Theologian, made almost to their full height; in the upper part of the icon are shoulder images of angels in round medallions. This iconographic type by the 19th century will turn into the image "Do not cry for me, Mati", which is appropriate to attribute to the icons of the Mother of God.

Russian icon painters, starting from the 16th century, dared to depict the Second Hypostasis of the Trinity and before its Incarnation. Although the legitimacy of such allegorical images as Sophia the Wisdom of God in her Novgorod version was disputed by several church councils of the 16th and 17th centuries, they continued to be reproduced until the end of the 19th century. They found their reflection in copper casting.

The classical iconography of Sophia the Wisdom of God, as well as the symbolism of this image, is extremely complex. However, the central part of the image, which is a kind of "Deesis", in which, instead of Christ, a winged effeminate figure with angelic wings and a star-shaped halo sits on the throne, is represented in ancient casting by rare castings made long before the schism.

The Old Believer copper casting reproduces an abbreviated version of Sophia, known in iconography since the 17th century under the name "Good Silence Savior". Silence is a symbol of inexpressibility, non-manifestation, non-embodiment. Sophia's silence is a symbol of the non-incarnation of the Eternal Logos, and Sophia Herself is the Logos before the Incarnation. Thus, the icon "Saved Good Silence" is an image of Jesus Christ before His Incarnation.

The image of "Good Silence" is a half-length image of Sophia in his Novgorod version. This is a winged angel with the face of a young maiden with a star-shaped halo inscribed in a circle, dressed in a royal dalmatic, with arms crossed on his chest. In casting, this image appears only towards the end of the 18th century. It exists either in the form of a small casting, where only an angel is depicted, or in the form of a larger icon, where the angel turns into a centerpiece, inscribed in a frame with 18 round medallions, in which there are half-length figures of various saints. These icons, as a rule, were painted with enamels of various shades.

The theological content of this very elegant icon is inferior to the more modest, but no less mysterious image of the Angel of the Great Council. That is what the well-known collectors of the 19th century, the Khanenko brothers, call this image of an angel on the cross. The angel himself with a mirror and a measure in his hands resembles the well-known image of the Archangel Michael. However, the presence of the cross behind the angel's back helps to see a deeper theological content in this image. The Apostle Peter in the First Catholic Epistle, which is part of the New Testament, calls Jesus Christ the Lamb, destined even before the creation of the world for the slaughter (1 Pet. 1, 19-20). The same symbolic image is found in the Apocalypse (Rev. 13:8). At the same time, the prophet Isaiah calls the still unincarnated Christ the Angel of the Great Council (Isaiah 9:6). Thus, this small image of an angel expresses the deepest theological idea about the infinite love of God for man, God, who is ready to sacrifice Himself for the sake of saving the only creature that is the bearer of His Image.

Images of the Virgin

Closest to the saints to the Russian Orthodox person was the Mother of God. Hundreds of iconographic types are known in iconography, each of which, originating from a specific miraculous icon, has several varieties. Not all of them are found in the products of the Old Believer coppersmiths: some due to the fact that they were little known in Rus' (for example, the Mammal Feeder, Jerusalem, Blachernae, etc.), and some due to the fact that they were very similar to each other ( for example, Smolenskaya, Iverskaya, Skoroposlushnitsa)

The most common Mother of God plot in casting is the image of "Joy to All Who Sorrow". Perhaps this is due to the fact that this icon was one of the last miraculous icons glorified in Rus' before the schism. This plot is found in small plaquettes, rather large castings with a domed top, sometimes framed by cherubs. Three-leaved folds of various types are quite common, the middles of which represent this image. Unlike icons on wood, where the Mother of God is sometimes depicted with a baby, in casting she is always depicted without a baby with a scepter in her hands. At the top of the dome-shaped castings there is an image of Jesus Christ in a crown and with outstretched blessing hands; this version in iconography is known under the name "King by king". In large castings, the composition of the icon is more detailed than in small ones, where it is limited to the figures of the Mother of God and several suffering ones benefited by her; angels appear here, through whom the Mother of God gives her help, the faces of the sun and moon, symbolizing the continuity of this grace.

The second most common in casting is the iconographic type of the Smolensk Mother of God. This is one of the many images dating back to the Byzantine image of Hodegetria - the Guide, known in Rus' since the 12th century. A feature of this image is the infant Christ, sitting on the left hand of the Virgin; his right hand is folded in a two-fingered blessing, the left clutches a folded scroll. The faces of the Virgin and Christ are depicted frontally. On some castings, both the Mother of God and the baby Christ have special neck ornaments - tsats. There are icons on which, on top of the halo of the Virgin, there is a crown. These icons are close to the Skoroshlushnitsa type, which is different from the Smolensk one.

Close to Smolensk is the image of the Tikhvin Mother of God. The difference is that the faces of the Mother of God and Christ are facing each other, and the right leg of the baby is tucked under the left so that the lower part of the foot is visible.

Kazanskaya is another icon of the Mother of God widely known in Rus'. Found in 1579, it remained among the locally venerated, that is, icons not revered outside a certain region, until the autumn of 1612. The people's militia, which liberated Moscow from the Poles and Lithuanians, moved towards the capital with this miraculous icon. Since that time, Kazanskaya has become the national shrine of the Russian state: most of the temples and monasteries built in the 17th century were consecrated in honor of this icon. A distinctive feature of Kazanskaya is that the infant Christ is depicted standing. His left hand is hidden in the folds of his clothes, his right hand is folded into a two-fingered blessing. The image of the Virgin - shoulder; her hands are not visible at all. On separate icons, the Mother of God and Christ have tsats. In copper casting, the image of the Kazan Mother of God is presented in items of various sizes with a wide variety of tops. A wide variety of folds are widespread, in which the centerpiece - less often one of the wings - represents the Kazan icon.

Among the ancient icons of the Theotokos, a special place is occupied by the icon of the Sign, originating from Novgorod. In copper casting, this image is represented by several types of products. The "simple" Sign is a half-length image of the Mother of God with raised hands, in the center of which is also a half-length image of the infant Christ, sometimes inscribed in a circle. The baby's right hand - sometimes both - are folded into a two-fingered blessing. There is another common version of the Sign, in which the Virgin and Child are in the middle of a rhombus formed by slightly concave lines, at the corners of which are the symbols of the evangelists. In the rare, most ancient and most beautiful castings, the composition of the Sign is framed by two cherubs. The sign can be part of miniature double-leaf - less often three-leaf - folds. One of the rarest folds is the so-called panagia - a fold consisting of two round wings, one of which is the image of the Sign, the other - the image of the Old Testament Trinity.

Among other iconographic types of the Virgin, known in casting, the most interesting are the Three-Handed, Vladimirskaya, Burning Bush, Passionate, Bogolyubskaya, Intercession.

Three-handed is a very interesting iconographic type that appeared in Byzantium at the end of the 8th century. Some art historians attribute the appearance of this image to the influence of the iconography of Hinduism, where many-armed deities were a familiar reality. However, it is more likely that the Three-handed appears as an "icon of an icon", that is, an image of an icon of the Virgin, to which a healed person hung a silver or gold image of a sick hand. Church tradition connects the appearance of the image of the Three-handed with the name of John of Damascus, a learned monk, theologian and hymnographer, who in the 8th century occupied an important position at the court of the Damascus ruler. At the direction of the iconoclast emperor Constantine Copronimos, John, who wrote several works in defense of icon veneration, had his right hand cut off, which was later safely connected to the body. John of Damascus was the person who hung the image of the hand to the image before which he prayed for healing. In copper casting, Three-Handed is rare. This is a small copper plate with an unusual decorative frame.

The Vladimir icon, the first national shrine of Rus', brought from Byzantium in the middle of the 12th century, is relatively rarely reproduced in copper casting. Vladimirskaya refers to the ancient Byzantine iconographic type Tenderness. The Christ Child is on the right hand of the Mother of God, pressed against her so tightly that the palm of his left hand, clasping his neck, becomes visible. The left leg of the baby is tucked under the right so that the lower part of the foot is visible. The Vladimir icon is known both in independent castings and as a centerpiece in three-leaved folds. Castings of the Vladimir icon are known, in which the head of the Mother of God is crowned with a crown.

Close to Vladimir is the iconographic type of the Fedorov Icon of the Mother of God, which was considered the patroness of the Royal House of Romanov. The difference is in the free position of the baby's legs.

The burning bush is the most complex and multi-figured icon. In the circle formed by angels with outstretched wings there is a half-length image of the Mother of God with the Christ child, similar to Hodegetria. This circle is the central part of the eight-pointed star, in the rays of which are the symbols of the evangelists and images of various angelic ranks. Angels are also depicted in the space between the rays of the star. In the corners of the icon there are four compositions dedicated to the Old Testament prophecies about the Mother of God: Moses in front of the Burning Bush, Jesse under the tree of the family of David, Jacob's Ladder and Ezekiel's prophecy. The Burning Bush is often decorated with multicolored enamels, which make the icon very attractive. Large icons are especially beautiful, on which, above the image of the Burning Bush, in five round medallions, half-length images of the Apostle Peter, the Virgin, Jesus Christ, John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul are depicted.

Equally multi-figure, although less interesting than the Burning Bush, is the icon of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos.

The passionate icon of the Mother of God is a half-length depiction of the Hodegetria type, in which the Virgin and the baby are surrounded by angels who hold instruments of passion in their hands. The baby's head is turned back to one of the angels. The head of the Theotokos is surmounted by a jagged crown extending beyond the upper edge of the icon. Passionate is often crowned with five cherubs; often it is the middle of the tricuspid fold.

The Bogolyubskaya icon of the Mother of God, known since the end of the 12th century, is an image of the Mother of God without a baby, in full growth with a scroll in her hands. In copper casting, one of the rare renditions of a later time is common, in which, in addition to the Mother of God, Metropolitan Peter and several kneeling figures are depicted standing in front of her. The half-length image of the Mother of God with a scroll, close to Bogolyubskaya, forms the left wing of the sa my most common tricuspid folds Deesis.

Very beautiful and unusual is the Mother of God image "Do not cry for me, Mati", which depicts the Savior taken down from the cross. This "Russian pieta" has a very concise and at the same time expressive iconography. Against the background of the upper part of the cross are half-length images of the dead Jesus with arms folded on his chest and the Mother leaning towards him. They rest on the wall of the coffin in which the body is to be placed. This image is known in archaic castings of the 17th century and in realistic icons of the 18th and 19th centuries.

Holiday stories

In the Old Believer casting, festive plots occupy a large place. Basically, these are images of the main church holidays, which, by their number (12), are called "twelfth". Only one holiday, the Resurrection of Christ, has a higher status, which is also quite fully represented in ancient castings.

Among the "travel" icons of the 16th-17th centuries worn on the body during travels, the "holiday" images are remarkable for their amazing richness, where up to twelve holidays are placed on a space of several square centimeters. Similar images were distinguished by the same laconicism, in which the place of holidays was occupied by images of saints.

All the twelfth holidays are united in the wings of the well-known three-leaved fold, originally cast, most likely, in the copper wares of Vyg. A feature of this folding is the absence of the plot of the Exaltation of the Cross, instead of which the Resurrection is inserted. The appearance of this fold is connected with the theme of the iconostasis, which is the most visible and necessary part of an Orthodox church. The iconostasis is the first thing that catches the eye of every person who enters an Orthodox church. This is a symbol of the unity of the earthly Church, consisting of believers living on earth, and the Heavenly Church, which includes the saints glorified by God. The Russian people became so close to the iconostasis that they wanted to have it with them even when there was no way to visit the church.

Persecuted by the authorities, the Old Believers for centuries did not have the opportunity to pray in real, properly built churches. The few churches built under the three monarchs condescendingly, who treated the adherents of the old faith: Catherine the Second, Paul and Alexander the First, during the reign of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich were either forcibly transferred to the same faith, or deprived of crosses on the domes and bells on the bell towers; the altars of churches that did not join the Edinoverie remained sealed for half a century. The Old Believers accepting the priesthood were rescued by the so-called camp churches, which were vast linen tents that housed camp iconostases - wooden folding, consisting of one and a half and more than a dozen wings, depicting all five tiers of the classical Russian iconostasis.

The Bespopovtsy Old Believers did not need an iconostasis, since there were no altars in their chapels. The absence of priests did not allow serving the Liturgy, celebrating the Sacrament of the Eucharist (Communion), the only one that should be performed in the altar. However, the iconostasis was the strongest reminder of the lost fullness of church life. Love for him was so irresistible that the eastern wall in the chapel, which did not have not only the Royal Doors, but no doors at all, was densely hung with icons arranged in the canonical order of the iconostasis.

The first iconostasis folds were double-leaf compositions depicting the main part of the iconostasis, local icons of the Savior and the Mother of God, which are placed on the sides of the Royal Doors in a stationary iconostasis. The northern origin of this fold is obvious: the Mother of God was represented by the ancient Novgorod shrine - the icon of the Sign, the image of the Savior was replaced by the Old Testament Trinity. Along with this laconic replica of the local rank of the iconostasis, a three-winged Deesis appears, which immediately appears in a fairly complete form of the so-called "nine" (actually, the Deesis - on the middle and three saints on the wings) and only then is limited to three images of the Savior, the Virgin and John Forerunners, one on each leaf. The three-leaved fold with images of the twelve main holidays becomes the image of the festive tier of the classical Russian iconostasis.

Already at the beginning of the 18th century, the three-leaf fold with the twelfth holidays was unfolded into the so-called "large sections". The fourth wing appears, which depicts plots of the acquisition of four miraculous icons, the most revered in the Russian Church in pre-Nikonian times. This is the acquisition of the Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God with selected saints; the meeting (meeting) of the Vladimir Icon with revered Moscow wonderworkers; the apparition of the Tikhvin Icon with selected saints; and the image of the Mother of God of the Sign with the Novgorod saints; Exaltation of the Cross and Praise of the Virgin. Colored with numerous enamels, sometimes gilded, these "large sections" became real travel iconostases, which, together with the prayers of wanderers, absorbed the history of huge Old Believer families, entire concords, wandering over vast expanses from the Austro-Hungarian border to Eastern Siberia.

Large sections were cast, probably, in the largest editions - every Old Believer family wanted to have a track iconostasis. However, few of them have survived to our time in a full four-fold composition. The godless power even destroyed the way of life of the Old Believer family life, tested for centuries. The family was destroyed, the sons went to the side, and when the last keeper of the family iconostasis died, the fold was disassembled into wings, each of which went to a new family. And to this day, in many families that barely remember their Old Believer roots, darkened, obliterated almost to the point of complete indistinguishability of images, individual wings of the festive folding are kept.

Forms for casting festive folds were usually assembled from separate matrices. Therefore, all the plots of the four-fold festive folding, including the tops, also existed in the form of separate castings. The difference in the frequency of these small icons is associated with different attitudes towards the holidays, the status of which was the same in the church calendar. So, for example, the feast of the Lord's Entry into Jerusalem (Palm Sunday) was lost in the shadow of Easter, which came exactly one week after Palm Sunday; the feast of Epiphany (Theophany) became invisible after the Nativity of Christ and almost two weeks of Christmas time with their inevitable festivities. The subjects of the Entry into the Temple, the Presentation, the Ascension were cast relatively rarely.

Many festive plots appeared in casting long before the folds imitating the iconostasis began to be cast. The ancient icons of the Nativity of Christ are very touching, on which there are also the figures of leaning angels and the figure of Joseph, alone in his removal from the event, and the swaddled figure of the infant Christ lying in a manger, over which a melancholy cow is leaning. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of a round font in which Jesus is bathed. The star of Bethlehem, located at the top of the icon, becomes the counterpoint of the complex composition. Magi with gifts appear in the castings of the 19th century, and next to Joseph there is a figure of an old man leaning on a staff. This is an evil spirit that confuses the righteous by pointing out the unusual circumstances of the appearance of the Divine Infant.

Almost more often than the Nativity of Christ in copper casting, the Nativity of the Virgin is found, known in castings of various sizes. The prevalence of the plot is probably due to the fact that this holiday (September 21, according to the new style) was the first big holiday of the church year, which began on September 1st. In addition, the icon depicted the parents of the Virgin Mary, the holy and righteous Joachim and Anna, who for a long time did not have children, and to whom the childless spouses prayed.

Quite often, the plot of the Resurrection of Christ is embodied in copper casting. The moment of the Resurrection was hidden from the observant human eye. The myrrh-bearing wives found an empty coffin, in which lay the remains of the cloth in which the Body of Jesus was wrapped. Therefore, classical Byzantine iconography knew only two images of the Resurrection: the appearance of an angel to the myrrh-bearing women and the descent into hell. These iconographic types were also established in Russian icon painting, and only the last of them originally existed in copper casting. Until the end of the 18th century, the Resurrection of Christ was embodied in copper casting only in the form of the Descent into Hell. Christ was depicted standing on the crossed boards of the overthrown gates of hell; he stretched out his hand to Adam, raising with him from hell the souls of all the sinners who were there. By the end of the 18th century, this iconography becomes somewhat more complicated: an allegorical image of hell appears in the form of an open, toothy mouth; on some castings, an image of three Calvary crosses is placed.

In the 19th century, a previously unknown image of Christ himself rising from the tomb appeared in Russian iconography, coming from the Catholic West, carrying a certain banner in his hands and surrounded by angels falling to him. The iconography of the Resurrection in copper plastic at this time becomes extremely complicated. Above the composition of the Descent into Hell is a Latin image of the rising Christ. Appear: an angel smiting demons, the apostle Peter, clinging to the tomb, the angels who are in it. Sinners being raised from hell ascend to paradise, the entrance to which is guarded by the seraphim, who was placed immediately after the expulsion of Adam and Eve. In paradise, sinners turned into righteous people are waiting for three lucky ones who got there before the Resurrection of Christ: this is the Old Testament forefather Enoch, the prophet Elijah and the prudent robber Rach.

In several versions, the plot of the Assumption, one of the favorite Russian holidays, was embodied. Even on the most miniature "top" icons, it was possible to place a bed with the body of the Virgin, and Christ, who receives her soul, and the apostles, who arrived at the burial, and the six-winged seraphim, standing at the entrance to paradise; an angel was also depicted, swollen with a sword in the hands of an ungodly Jew, who intended to overturn the bed of the Virgin. Along with these miniatures, large icons of the Dormition were cast in the second half of the 19th century, in the upper part of which there were half-length images of the apostles carried on clouds to the burial place of the Virgin.

The iconography of the Annunciation in copper casting has at least two versions. In small icons, only the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Gabriel are depicted; the impetuous movement of the Holy Spirit is emphasized by oblique strokes. In larger icons, the plot is enriched by the image of the bowed Father God, sitting on a lush cloud and blessing Mary. The interior in this case is worked out in more detail.

The embodiment of the plot of the Exaltation of the Cross is very interesting. Copper icons with the Exaltation of the Cross are somewhat larger than other holidays. In the center - Patriarch Macarius, raising (erecting) the genuine cross of Christ found during excavations. His arms are supported by two deacons. To the left of the patriarch is the Equal-to-the-Apostles Emperor Constantine the Great. On the right is his mother, Empress Elena, who organized the search for the cross.

Equally beautiful is the Entrance to Jerusalem (Palm Sunday). In the center of the composition is Christ sitting on a donkey. Behind him are His disciples - the apostles. On the right - against the backdrop of the Jerusalem temple, residents of the capital of Judea with palm branches in their hands.

The Ascension also belongs to the multi-figure compositions embodied in casting. The ascended Christ himself is depicted in a circle raised by four angels. At the bottom, the apostles and the Mother of God are depicted in height.

The plot of Baptism (Theophany) is an abbreviated version of the typical iconography of the holiday. John the Baptist plunges Christ into the waters of the Jordan; He is met by angels standing on the right; above him in the clouds is God the Father and the Holy Spirit proceeding from him in the form of a dove.

The icon of the feast of the Transfiguration is just as laconic. In the Center, surrounded by radiance, Christ with the forthcoming prophets Moses (right) and Elijah (left). Below - three kneeling figures of the apostles Peter, John and James. Rays of light emanating from Christ with considerable physical force bend them to the ground.

Quite rarely, outwardly similar plots of the Introduction and Meeting are encountered. The similarity lies in the fact that the action in both cases takes place in the Jerusalem temple and the priest participates in it. In the Presentation, this is the elder Simeon, meeting the Holy Family, bringing the baby Christ to the temple. In the plot of the Introduction, the priest's name is Zechariah. He meets the baby Mary, the future Mother of God, who is brought to the temple by her parents Joachim and Anna.

The Orthodox feast of the Trinity is embodied in two iconographic plots. Firstly, this is the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles and the Mother of God, an event to which the holiday is dedicated. Secondly, this is the Old Testament Trinity - three angels, symbolizing the three Hypostases of the Godhead, who appeared to the forefather Abraham. The descent of the Holy Spirit in the Old Believer casting is represented by a few items that are not widely used outside the "large ranges". The Mother of God, placed in the center of the icon, is surrounded by the apostles. Above it in a semicircle is the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove". Here you can see a clear discrepancy with the canon: according to the book of the Acts of the Holy Apostles and canonical iconography, the descent of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost takes place not in the form of a dove, but in the form of flames.

The Old Testament Trinity is found in more versions. At the heart of each of them is an image of three angels sitting at a table with a prepared meal; in the background, a stylized image of the Mamre oak is a characteristic detail of this plot. Rare castings are interesting, on which angels are decorated with massive tsatami. A possible prototype of these copper-cast icons were icons on wood, covered with salaries, on which tsats were common details in the 17th century. Of interest is a round icon imitating a panagia, with a pommel in the form of the Savior Not Made by Hands, on which, in addition to three angels, Abraham and Sarah serving are depicted, and with them a slave slaughtering a lamb, which will be served on the table.

The crucifixion should also be attributed to the festive plots. At the same time, icons depicting the crucified Christ are much rarer than individual crosses-crucifixions. The iconography of the Crucifixion is simple. In addition to the cross itself with the crucified Savior, four people are usually depicted on the icon: the Mother of God and Holy Mary on the left, John the Theologian and the centurion Longinus on the right. There are rare icons with the image of the crucifixion, on which two forthcoming ones are depicted in full growth, and two more in the half-length image are placed on top. Even more rare are crucifixions with no forthcoming ones at all.

Very elegant are icons with an archaic form of the Crucifixion with two forthcoming ones, which is surrounded by ten round medallions with half-length images of saints: the upper row is Deesis, below are symmetrical paired images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul; the bottom row represents Metropolitan Alexy, Leonty of Rostov and St. Sergius of Radonezh.

Four great holidays are approaching the twelfth feast in terms of their significance, of which three are reflected in casting. These are the feasts of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos, the Nativity of John the Baptist and the Beheading of John the Baptist.

Icon of the Intercession - depicts the vision of the Virgin in the Blachernae Church of Constantinople during the siege of the city by the Saracens. There are two planes on the icon - earthly and heavenly. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of a temple, praying, Blessed Andrew pointing to heaven to his disciple Epiphanius. There is also Deacon Roman Sladkopevets, who received from the Mother of God the gift of composing church hymns. This is a side story that is not directly related to the Feast of the Intercession. In the upper plan - the image of the Virgin, surrounded by the faces of the saints in front of Jesus Christ. In her hands she holds an omophorion (veil), which is a symbol of her intercession. One late version of this iconographic type is reproduced in copper casting. It differs in that the Mother of God is depicted not in the center, as in the ancient versions, but on the left side, half-turned. Sometimes cast icons of the Intercession have a pommel in the form of an image of Christ - the King of the King, the Old Testament Trinity or the New Testament Trinity.

The feasts of the Nativity and the Beheading of John the Baptist are combined in one casting. In the upper part of the icon - the Lord Almighty on the clouds, on the left - Christmas, on the right - Beheading.

images of saints

Saints in Old Believer castings are not particularly numerous. Of the hundreds of names included in the holy calendar, no more than two dozen saints are embodied in casting. At the same time, Archangel Michael, the most common in pre-Mongol casting, almost disappears in the Old Believer.

Cast icons depicting saints are best classified by the number of images.

A lone saint on cast Old Believer icons can be: Nicholas the Wonderworker (aka St. Nicholas, Nicholas of Myra, Nikola), Hieromartyr Antipas, Great Martyr George the Victorious, Martyr Dmitry of Thessalonica, St. Sergius of Radonezh, St. Tikhon, Apostle John the Theologian, Prophet Elijah, Great Martyr Nikita - Besogon, the martyr Paraskeva-Pyatnitsa, the martyr Uar, the martyr Tryphon, the Monk Paisios, the Monk Nifont and the Monk Maroy.

Most often there are cast icons of Nicholas the Wonderworker, the most revered saint in Rus'. The Old Believers recognized only the ancient form of the name of this saint - Nikola, which was placed on the icons. The iconography of Nikola is a variation of two versions: Nikola of Zaraisky - with the Gospel (it can be closed and opened) in his hands and Nikola of Mozhaisky - full-length, with a temple in his left hand and a sword in his left.

Nikola Mozhaisky is found in casting much less frequently, which corresponds to the ratio of these images in an ordinary wooden icon. A characteristic feature of Nikola's iconography is the presence of half-length images of Christ and the Mother of God, holding out the Gospel and omophorion to the saint - signs of his episcopal dignity. This feature is associated with one hagiographic episode. Saint Nicholas denounced the heresiarch Arius at the First Ecumenical Council so passionately that in the heat of the controversy he struck him on the cheek. Such assault was considered a sin, and Saint Nicholas was deprived of his episcopal rank. It was returned to him only after Christ Himself and the Mother of God appeared in a dream to the influential participants in the Council and pointed out the incorrectness of their decision. Occasionally, instead of Christ and the Mother of God, Nikola is surrounded by images of two saints.

The half-length images of Nikola have a wide variety of sizes. They are part of a wide variety of folds. From small wearable icons to very large icons decorated with multi-colored enamels. The most common are the so-called "top" icons, where Nikola is depicted with the upcoming Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky.

Icons with Nicholas of Mozhaisk are also diverse. Folds with the image of this saint were widely used. Very beautiful are small cut-out icons dating back to the 17th century. Occasionally there are icons of Nicholas of Mozhaisk, on which two scenes from his life are depicted on either side of the saint.

The image of the Hieromartyr Antipas, Bishop of Pergamon, is next after Nikola in terms of distribution. Antipas is known for small-sized icons and mullions of numerous folds. His appearance is distinguished by a long wavy beard and curls on his head. Larger icons covered with floral ornaments are known, often covered with multi-colored enamels. The most beautiful of them have the image of Deesis in three round medallions placed over the saint's head. On some castings with the image of Antipas, the letters З and Ц are visible, which means the Tooth Healer. It is believed that Antipas helps in the treatment of toothache.

Quite common in copper casting is the image of George the Victorious. Probably, the tradition of making cast icons of George has not been interrupted since pre-Mongolian times. The Old Believers made both small icons with George and larger icons, often decorated with enamels. Such icons as mullions were inserted into folds with various wings. Cut-out icons of at least three different types are known from the 17th century. George's iconography is traditional. He is depicted sitting on a horse, striking a defeated winged dragon with a spear. The staging of the figure of the saint is variable. Its head may be turned forward or, more rarely, turned half-turned back. In the upper right corner, in the clouds, the blessing right hand of God is visible. There are icons on which, above the figure of the saint, there is a half-length image of Christ-Emmanuel (lad), with a blessing gesture of both hands.

Even more than George, in pre-Mongol Rus', another martyr was revered - the warrior Dmitry Solunsky. In the Old Believer casting, the image of this saint is known mainly in one very elegant casting. The central part of this icon depicts Dmitry, sitting on a horse and spearing the impious pagan Leah, who was thrown to the ground. In general, the iconography of Dmitry is very similar to the iconography of George. However, where George has a dragon, Dmitry has a defeated warrior Liy. Above the image of Dmitry in the icon under consideration is the Savior Not Made by Hands, on both sides of which there are four half-length images; on the left are Prince Vladimir and John Chrysostom, below are the Monk Savva and Saint Meletios; on the right - St. Athanasius and Emperor Constantine, below - St. Lazarus and St. Paphnutius. To the left of the very image of Dmitry there is a column with three saints: St. John of Damascus, Prince Boris, martyr of Flores; the same column is right: St. Ephraim the Syrian, Prince Gleb, Martyr Laurus. The bottom row is formed by half-length figures of six holy hermits: St. Mary of Egypt, Onufry, Peter Athos, African, Maron, Alexei the God-man. This very elegant icon was usually decorated with numerous enamels. Demetrius of Thessalonica's images were occasionally placed on the centerpieces of three-leaved folds.

Ilya was one of the favorite saints of Ancient Rus'. It is difficult to understand why the prophet who denounced the wicked kings of Israel in the 9th century BC becomes a completely Russian saint, responsible for thunder and lightning, as well as for the timely supply of rain. This is probably due to the fact that one of the first Kyiv Christian churches, built long before the Baptism of Rus', was Ilyinsky. The characteristic features of Perun, the main deity of the ancient Slavic pantheon, were combined with Ilya, whom the people of Kiev, who were not rooted in the new faith, for a long time considered more important than Christ. In casting, Ilya has been known since ancient times. The composition of the Fiery Ascension was embodied in small icons, which existed both independently and were mullions and sashes (less often) of folds. In larger icons, it was supplemented by several more scenes from life.

Orthodox women in Rus' traditionally venerated the martyr Paraskeva-Pyatnitsa. The image of this saint is also quite common, but only in small copper-cast icons. Usually these are half-length images, in which Paraskeva holds a cross in her right hand and an unrolled scroll in her left. Occasionally Saint Paraskeva is crowned. Even more rarely, two saints are depicted in the upper part of the icon.

St. Sergius of Radonezh is depicted in a monastic robe, with an open head. The expression on his face is very kind. Castings with the image of St. Sergius are different in size. In most of them, above the head of St. Sergius, there is an image of the Holy Trinity, in honor of which the first temple of his monastery was consecrated.

The Monk Nifont, who was considered a "chaser of demons", is represented by a single icon in which the saint is depicted in a monastic doll with a scroll in his hands. Rev. Maroy resembles him, who, unlike Nifont, is cast bald and with an uncovered head.

The Monk Tikhon in an Old Believer cast is presented in one small image, on which the saint is depicted in a mantle and a monastic doll.

The apostle and evangelist John the Theologian is presented in one way with a figurative completion. This is the famous composition "John the Theologian in Silence", where next to the seated apostle is an eagle - his iconographic symbol.

Very touching are small icons depicting the martyr Nikita beating a demon. This image dates back to the pre-Mongol era. In the 15th - 17th centuries, pectoral crosses with the image of Nikita Besogon were very common. The image of a saint who defeated evil spirits was considered a good remedy against the mischief of demons.

Among the copper-cast icons with images of single saints, there are small icons of the martyrs Paisius, Uar and Tryphon, which have a similar style. The appearance of these saints is due to their special function in the life of a Russian person. They prayed to the Martyr Tryphon in case of danger from enemies; this saint helped in the expulsion from the fields and gardens of all kinds of pests. The canon was read to the martyr Uar for those who died without repentance; they prayed for the repose of those negligent Christians over whom the priest refused to sing a funeral. Martyr Paisius, in addition, prayed for the repose of suicides.

Icons depicting two saints are not numerous. These are the images of the princes of the passion-bearers Boris and Gleb, Kirik and Ulita, Vlasy and Athanasius, the Monk Zosima and Savvaty.

Boris and Gleb were the first saints glorified by the Russian Church. The sons of Vladimir who baptized Rus', killed by his brother Svyatopolk the Accursed, young Boris and Gleb were considered the embodiment of Christian humility and the defenders of all unjustly offended people. In casting, Boris and Gleb are always depicted as horsemen. Round wearable icons depicting a pair of holy princes appeared long before the Mongol invasion. The carved icon with the image of Boris and Gleb, sitting on horseback, with spears decorated with flags in their hands, is very beautiful. The icon is crowned with a round medallion depicting the Trinity, above which is a small plate depicting the Savior Not Made by Hands, in which there is a hole for a gaitan. This iconography is repeated in other images that are of different sizes. In later castings, the caps on the heads of the princes are replaced by helmets.

The images of the martyr Julita and her son, the infant Kirik, should also be attributed to the images common in casting. Julita is depicted with a cross in her hand, Kirik with arms folded across his chest. Very attractive small icons, made in the spirit of touching naivety. Kirik and Julita are depicted on them surrounded by flowers of a fantastic size. Such scapulars were often used as mullions for three-leaved folds. The image of Kirik and Julita is included in a fairly common four-part icon, where, in addition to them, plots can be placed on an area of ​​​​several square centimeters: the Image Not Made by Hands, the Mother of God of Vladimir, the Mother of God of the Sign. A small icon with selected saints is very common, where the martyrs Paraskeva, Evdokia and Barbara are depicted in the upper row, and Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Kirik and Julita are depicted in the lower row.

Vlasius and Athanasius were depicted very simply, as standing figures, dressed in phelonions, covered with bishop's omophorions. These icons often became the middle of the folds.

Quite rare is a small icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prochorus. Between the saints is the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, under which is a conditional image of Heavenly Jerusalem.

Saints Zosima and Savvaty were especially loved by the Old Believers, since the Solovetsky Monastery founded by them for a very long time resisted the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, who, however, was also a member of the Solovetsky monastic brethren. Zosima and Savvaty shone against the backdrop of the Solovetsky archipelago; in their hands they held a model of their monastery. Particularly touching are the icons on which, with the help of white and blue enamel, the foundry masters depicted the sea on which the monastery stood.

The images of three saints in Old Believer castings are represented by a few icons. In the form of individual icons, the wings of the folds of "nines" were cast, the middle of which was Deesis. These are icons depicting: Metropolitan Philip, Nicholas the Wonderworker and John the Theologian; Guardian Angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty; Great Martyr George, Hieromartyrs Antipas and Blasius; Saint John of the Old Cave, Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

The icons of three saints were very common: Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom. This image is known in two versions. One of them, more ancient, represents the great teachers of the church in full growth in the frontal composition. Another, which appeared not without the influence of the Baroque, depicts the saint in more free and relaxed poses; this image is known under the name "Conversation".

Similar to the icon of the Three Hierarchs in its first simplified version is the icon of St. John the Left, John of Damascus, and Alexy the Man of God.

The great martyr and healer Panteleimon, surrounded by the holy martyrs Zadok and Athenogens, form another icon of the "troika". The Hieromartyr Antipas, surrounded by the martyrs Florus and Laurus, was cast both as a separate icon and as the middle of the folding.

Among the saints revered by the people, a special place was occupied by the martyrs Guriy, Samon and Aviv, who were considered the patrons of marriage. Known are small cast icons with a full-face full-length depiction of these saints.

Full-length profile images of the martyrs John the Warrior, Kharlampios and Boniface are characteristic of yet another cast icon of "top" size. They prayed to John the Warrior for the return of a stolen or lost item, the martyr Boniface helped from excessive addiction to wine.

Similar icons of the "troika" were cast with the image of the martyrs Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Catherine and Barbara; Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Saint Nicholas, Saint Tikhon. It should be noted that St. Tikhon, depicted in a phelonion with a bishop's omophorion, is not the same St. Tikhon, who is better known on icons with a single saint.

Quite rare is a small icon with the image of the Theotokos of the Sign, on which the martyrs Tikhon, Mina and Paraskeva Pyatnitsa are depicted in the bottom row.

Icons depicting a larger number of saints are very few. An icon depicting five saints is known: Hieromartyrs Modest, Blasius, Saint Nil, Martyrs Flor and Laurus. There is an icon with six saints: the martyrs Evdokia Varvara, Julita, Catherine, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa are depicted in a row. Before Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. At the top of this icon is Spas Emmanuel in the clouds.

On the most multi-figure icon with images of saints, they are depicted in two rows: the upper one is the noble princess Fevronia, the martyrs Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Catherine, Evdokia Alexandra, the Monk Mary of Egypt; in the lower row - St. Basil the Great, the Right-Believing Prince Peter, the Martyr Ulita, the Apostle Herodion, the Monk Paisios the Great; in front of Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. There are twelve saints in all.

Another twelve-figure icon represents, as it were, two connected folding doors. On the left side from top to bottom are half-length images.

The icons described in the article, of course, do not exhaust the whole variety of Old Believer copper castings. Numerous variations within not only one iconographic type, but also within one rendition, would require such detailed writing that the volume of the article could increase very significantly. In addition, icons remained undescribed, cast in a small number of copies, which subsequently were not replicated. Likewise, icons and folds cast before the schism were not considered, which, although they were in the hands of the Old Believers, cannot actually be called Old Believer; they belong to the common culture of the Russian Church. The article does not specifically touch upon the issue of various modifications of folds, of iconography variations in their mullions and sashes.

A special and very extensive section in the study of Old Believer copper casting is the description of various crucifixes, pectoral, icon-case, altar crosses, which, unlike body crosses, were cast in a very wide iconographic spectrum. This issue requires separate consideration.

http://antiq.soldes.ru/copper_plastic/

In a coat with an open collar,

With bare head

Slowly passing through the city

Uncle Vlas is a gray-haired old man.

On the chest there is a copper icon:

He asks for God's temple, -

All in chains, poor shoes,

Deep scar on cheek...

ON THE. Nekrasov

Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. That very special attitude to copper casting, which existed in Russia for a millennium, has been completely forgotten in the people's memory over the past century.

Agree, in our modern world of superspeeds, there is no place left for faith in God. Today, for most people, it has been replaced by expensive cars and money. Money has become a cult. But just a hundred years ago, every Russian Orthodox Christian began and ended his day with a fairly simple action - a prayer, offering it to the Lord God, sharing with him all his sorrows and joys, which now seems, to put it mildly, unusual for a modern person. .

But not everything is lost, spirituality is beginning to revive in modern society, because without it the revival of Russia as a great state is impossible. In other words, our country, more than ever before, needs to revive and strengthen immutable moral values, to turn to the origins in order to strengthen the spiritual foundation of society, to act creatively.

Where does the path of an Orthodox person begin? That's right - from baptism. From holy baptism to the hour of death, every Christian must wear on his chest the sign of his faith - the pectoral cross. It is a symbol of our salvation, a weapon of spiritual struggle, a symbol of confession of faith. This sign is worn not over clothes, but on the body, which is why the cross is called wearable. That is why crosses are the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the modern world, gold and silver pectoral crosses are most in demand, and in ancient times they were mostly copper, and it was a very expensive pleasure to make them from precious metals. Copper crosses are still in demand, most of all among the Old Believers. What pectoral cross is considered canonical, why is it unacceptable to wear a pectoral cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other icons? You can read here.

Also, icon-case crosses, which were used by our ancestors, are still very popular. They differ from pectoral crosses in larger sizes and do not have an eyelet for a neck cord. The icon-case cross is placed on special shelves (kiots) among the holy icons in the red corner or is attached to the jamb of the door of the dwelling. They, due to their small size, can be taken with you on travels, hikes, trips, to arrange temporary altars.

Works made of copper, especially pectoral crosses and icons with relief images, had a protective function, and were revered as shrines, amulets from evil spirits, disasters and diseases. Copper, according to popular belief, had "magical" properties. Separately, I would like to dwell on the topic of dual faith, because after the Baptism of Rus' in 988, paganism persisted until the 12th century, and only then it began to gradually fade away. A unique symbol of this time is a medallion-shaped icon - a serpentine, on which a Christian saint was depicted on one side, and a pagan snake-like creature on the other (which is why it is called that). Among the people, the meaning of the serpentine as a talisman was preserved until the 20th century.

A modern replica of a serpentine with the image of the Mother of God with the Child is very interesting. (Ancient Rus', XIII-XIV centuries), it can be purchased in the online store. The image of the Mother of God on the front side of the serpentine symbolizes victory over the devil and over all evil, according to popular belief, only the devil could not appear in her image, and she has always been a reliable protector from the devil's power. Thus, the protective significance of these objects was especially emphasized.

“A pure image, worthy of veneration”… These words can be used to define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by Old Believer craftsmen in the vast expanses of Russia – in the hermitages of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in hidden forges in the Urals and Siberia – during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. until the beginning of the 20th century.

The new period in the history of copper foundry is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of copper casting. It was difficult to constantly transport large temple icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is in the non-priestly concords, mainly among the Pomeranians, that copper casting flourishes. Like priceless relics, ancient copper-cast icons were carefully inserted into icon cases and placed in wooden picturesque or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the Old Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as if they had been cleansed by fire” and not by the hands of “created” received wide reverence among the people. The variety of form, iconography, composition and decoration, Old Believer copper-cast crosses, icons and folds is amazing. And hot multi-colored enamels and fire gilding enhance their decorative effect.

Three-leaf folds "Deisus" were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, to be worn on the chest to a large solemn image for the chapel.

It was during this period that folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them is the three-leaved fold "Deisus with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, nine figures are represented on the fold. In the middle - the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky.

Also, I would like to separately note the four-leaf fold with the image of the Twelfth Feasts - the so-called "big holiday sections". This fold, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular, and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of working out miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second alignment - testifies to the talent and high skill of the casters of the famous Vygov "copper box".

The pillars of the Russian land were and remain the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by numerous copper-cast icons and folds, to which Russian people turned with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer throughout the vast territory of Russia ... The veneration of saints is associated with the concept of holiness - central in the history of salvation - and its bearers. At the source are the holy martyrs. Jesus Christ is the greatest martyr. Gregory the Theologian said about the feat of martyrdom: “Glorifying the memory of the holy martyrs, we not only participate in this celebration, we participate in the mystery of martyrdom, which these saints revealed…” .

The most revered and dearly beloved saints, both in Russia and throughout the world, were and remain: St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (to pray for intercession, marriage, health and other help); St. Nikita, beating the demon (helps in teaching, heals, casts out demons, helps to repent of sins and free himself from the temptations of the devil, including drunkenness); St. George the Victorious (he is the patron of the military, farmers, livestock breeders); Saint Paraskeva Friday (they pray to her for the patronage of the family hearth; in marital infertility; for worthy suitors); Hieromartyr Antipas of Pergamon (they pray to him for healing, in particular from dental diseases); Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky (they are the patrons of beekeepers, they also pray for help at sea from storms and drowning, for help on the water for those floating); Saint Sergius of Radonezh (they pray to him for the spiritual health of children and for their success in education); Holy Matrona of Moscow (they pray to her for pregnancy, health, marriage, conception, love, recovery, help); Saint Seraphim of Sarov (they pray to him for physical and spiritual healing).

Separately, I would like to highlight the image of the Mother of God - throughout Rus', in every house, as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor,” people turned to Her and turn to Her. The most revered icons of Our Lady of Kazan, Fedorovskaya, Tikhvinskaya and Burning Bush. “For the insight of blinded eyes,” the Mother of God of Kazan prays. The Mother of God Fedorovskaya is addressed with a prayer "for liberation from the difficult birth of wives." “On the preservation of the health of babies,” the Mother of God of Tikhvin asks.

The Russian people consider Our Lady of the Burning Bush a protector from fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but the images and icons of the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow are especially loved by the people.

Small copper icons and folds, easy to carry, durable and cheap, quite often served as a talisman - they accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land.

During the years of Soviet power, the production of copper-cast plastic ceased, only handicraft and small-circulation products were created. But 70 years later, thanks to the successors of the traditions of Russian copper casting, this art began to revive. Modern masters have tried to recreate all the diversity and former splendor of copper plastic, inventing new versions, as well as duplicating the old ones that were created earlier and were used by our ancestors. Poetry of art and metal got a second life!

Online store website offers you a unique opportunity to join one of the most ancient arts - Russian artistic copper casting. Feel the spirit of history through copper-cast plastic, which was created several hundred years ago by the hands of talented craftsmen, and who knows, maybe in this way you will be able to come to faith in God, as it was before, with a Russian Orthodox person. One of the most interesting features is that everyone who took a copper icon or a cross in their hands experienced some kind of extraordinary inner feeling, perhaps this is due to their enchanting magnificence, severity and at the same time softness, which attract and fascinate. Or maybe this feeling is the very grace of God?

Unfortunately, in our modern society, there are a lot of people who do not believe in God. But do not condemn them, for "Judge not, lest you be judged" (Matt. 7:1-6). Give such a person a small icon or a copper icon, for example, with St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. And advise him to turn to God with a prayer when there will be a difficult moment in his life, because “there are no atheists in the trenches under fire” - every person sooner or later comes to faith, and let this first step be taken with the help of a small copper icon donated You.

Friends and relatives will be very pleased to receive a copper icon as a gift for any significant event. Such an original gift will leave a long prayerful memory of you, because every time you pray to the copper icon you donated, loved ones will remember you with prayer and warmth of the heart. A copper or bronze icon over time can become a real family heirloom - a particle of the eternal, intangible. It can decorate your home iconostasis, or become a wonderful "travel" icon that will accompany you on your travels!

Today our life has become faster and faster. We spend most of our time driving a car. So that trouble or trouble does not happen on the road, more and more often people resort to the help of miraculous helpers, that is, icons, amulets, holy guides. Icons in the car are a kind of our protection and protection while driving, they provide miraculous help, make it possible to turn to God on the way, pray and ask for protection. Due to its low cost, durability and resistance to fading under the influence of sunlight, a copper icon will be an ideal gift for a motorist.

As an exclusive gift, we are ready to offer you a modern mortise stavrotek - an iconostasis. Modern mortise icons are made to order, from various types of wood - linden, oak, pine, beech, taking into account all your wishes. All carpentry work is done by hand, and we can say with full confidence that the new modern mortise icon will exist in a single copy! This makes it truly unique, and any believer would be pleased to receive such a gift.

We sincerely believe that thanks to our small contribution, spirituality will begin to revive, because without it the revival of the great Russian state is impossible ...

In case of full or partial copying of materials from our site, an active link to the source is required!

40 Pokrovsky N.V. Church-Archaeological Museum of the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. 1879–1909 - St. Petersburg, 1909. - S. 20–21.

c. 5¦ Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. In Ancient Rus', a cross was an obligatory accessory for every Christian, it accompanied him from birth until his death, so crosses are the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the first centuries of the adoption of Christianity by Russia, crosses were worn not on the body, but over clothing "as clear indicators of Christian baptism." They baptized with a cross, blessed, admonished, with its help they healed, they buried with a cross and wearable images. The most revered crosses and icons, often with relics and shrines embedded in them, were handed down in the family by inheritance and were family heirlooms.

42 Complete collection of Russian chronicles. - M., 1962. - T. II. - S. 310.

They swore allegiance on the crosses. “The cross is small, but its power is great,” it is recorded in the annals of the 12th century. Copper crosses are known, which, according to legend, belonged to the Russian saints Abraham of Rostov, Euthymius of Suzdal, Sergius of Radonezh and other historical figures. These crosses were repeatedly reproduced at a later time, and they were given the importance of a national shrine.

Indeed, the support of the Russian land was the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by numerous copper-cast icons and folds, to which Russian people turned with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer in the vast expanses from the White Sea to the outskirts of Siberia ...

However, over the past century, the very special attitude to copper casting that existed in Russia for a millennium has been forgotten in the people's memory. Only oral and written sources have preserved and conveyed to our time some features of the existence of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds.

2 Buslaev F.I. General concepts of Russian icon painting // Buslaev F. I. On Literature: Research. Articles. - M., 1990. - S. 360–361.

In the 19th century, the famous philologist and art historian F. I. Buslaev was one of the first to point out the significance of copper icons and crosses. He noted that the originals, from which Old Russian icon painters made copies, were small in size, and this made it possible to transfer them across the vast expanses of Russia, to bring them from distant countries. Metal folds were especially valued, replacing entire iconostases and holy calendars. “These were shrines,” wrote F.I. Buslaev, “the most convenient for transferring, durable and cheap; therefore they are still in great use among the common people, especially among schismatics.

57 Collection of resolutions on the part of the schism, held under the authority of the Holy Synod. - St. Petersburg. 1899. - T. 2. - S. 430.

It is no coincidence that reports to the government in the first half of the 19th century reported: “The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is widespread throughout Russia; c. 5
c. 6¦ it has been rooted for a long time among the common people, not excluding people of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are available in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages, over the gates of houses, on ships, etc. Moreover, peasants bless with these icons their children, who go on long journeys or become recruits, and these images then remain with them for a lifetime.

17 Efimenko P. S. Materials on the ethnography of the Russian population of the Arkhangelsk province. - M., 1877. - Part 1. - S. 33.

According to contemporaries, in the Arkhangelsk province, “in addition to the construction of churches and chapels, it is a very common custom to bless wooden crosses and pillars ... along the edges of streets, at the entrances to villages, at intersections, at places revered for some reason ... An image of a crucifixion is simply carved into the crosses, and cast copper exaltation crosses, simple icons or with salaries in rizas are embedded in the pillars ... ".

4 Veltman A.F. Adventures gleaned from the sea of ​​life. Salome. - M., 1864.

Such a tradition existed not only in the Russian North, in Siberia and the Volga region, but also in Moscow. As far back as the 19th century, eyewitnesses noted that “... on one of the spacious streets outside Moscow, not disturbed by either carriages or crowds of people, you will first see a long piece fence and gates of cunning work, painted with oil paints variegated, but with great taste. Above the gate there is a copper okladen. Now it is rare and only in remote northern villages one can find a cross in a cemetery with a copper-cast object fixed on it ...

66 Shayzhin N. S. Olonets region according to local folklore. - St. Petersburg., 1909. - S. 15, 17.

The veneration of the copper cross was also reflected in folk conspiracies that existed in the Russian North until the end of the 19th century. So, in the Olonets province, according to popular belief, in order to heal a sick person, it was necessary to boil the “slandered” water, putting three copper crosses in it. According to the cross vest baked in bread, the mother tried to predict the fate of her son during recruitment, breaking the bread into two halves.

55 Snessoreva S. The earthly life of the Most Holy Theotokos. - St. Petersburg, 1891. - S. 486–488.

As miraculous, the Russian double-leaved encolpion cross with the image of Our Lady of Kupyatitskaya is known. The legend connects the copper cross with the town of Kupyatichi (later a village in the Pinsk district of the Minsk province). On the site of the appearance of this cross in 1182, a wooden temple was erected, burned down during the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. But the copper image survived, became famous for many miracles, and in 1656 was transferred to the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

58 Spassky I. G. Three serpentines from Ukraine // Medieval Rus'. - M., 1976. - S. 361. 30 Nechaev S. Note on the old copper image // Proceedings and notes of the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University. - M., 1826. - Part III., book. I. - S. 136.

Among the people, the meaning of the serpentine as a talisman was preserved until the 20th century. In Ukraine, young women wore similar items as protective amulets to help with illness and childbirth. In the northern provinces of Russia, peasants wore serpentines along with a cross on their chests, attributing to them "wonderful power to quench suffering" when applied to sore spots.

The Old Believers had a very special attitude towards copper-cast icons and folds, who revered them as having undergone “purification” by fire, that is, “not by the hands of creation.”

28 Maksimov S.V. Wandering Rus' for Christ's sake // Collected Works. - St. Petersburg, 1896. - T. 2. - S. 259.

At the end of the 19th century, the connoisseur of Russian folk life, S.V. Maksimov, wrote about his meetings with the Old Believers, who wore copper icons in their bosoms and did not pray for other people's icons. They “take out their copper icon from their bosom. Putting it somewhere on a shelf, they begin to pray hastily, soon ... Sitting down at the table for dinner, they put these same icons across the table opposite themselves, in order to differ from the Orthodox in this too. c. 6
c. 7¦

68 Diane le Berrurier. Icons from the deep // Archeology. - New York, 1988. - T. 41, v. 6. - P. 21–27. 13 Dutch and Russians. From the history of relations between Russia and Holland. 1600–1917: Exhibition catalogue. - M., Pushkin Museum im. A. S. Pushkin, 1989. - S. 117–118.

Amulets - small scapulars and folds - accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land. So, in 1780, the Russian ship Glory to Russia sank during a storm off the coast of France. Only 200 years later, 80 copper-cast icons and small folds belonging to Russian sailors were raised from the bottom. Similar objects have been found in North Holland. Here, at the site of the battles of 1799 between the Anglo-Russian and Franco-Dutch troops, among the military relics, Russian folds with the image of Saints Nicholas the Wonderworker and Paraskeva Pyatnitsa were found. These small and modest items brought to us the memory of the unknown Russian soldiers who fell in a foreign land...

38 Letters from Archpriest M. Diev to I. M. Snegirev. 1830–1857 // CHOIDR. - M., 1887. - S. 63.

Often the choice of copper-cast images was determined by popular prints (“healers”) called “The Telling to Whom the Saints of What Grace of Healing from God Are Given,” which began to appear in the second half of the 18th century. Almost all the saints mentioned in these sheets were most often depicted on copper icons. In the middle of the 19th century, Archpriest Mikhail Diev wrote to the well-known lubok researcher I. M. Snegirev that in the Kostroma province “the images of George the Victorious, Florus and Laurus and Blasius are cut copper in our side ... they wear horses on their chests on trading days, and keep them in houses ... along with images.

44 Porfiridov N. G. Old Russian small stone sculpture and its plots // Soviet archeology. - 1972, No. 3. - S. 200–207.

In copper casting - a mass and circulation form of art - it is easy to identify the most revered saints. Among the people, the holy "demon fighters" were considered the quickest helpers, protecting a person from the effects of evil forces. The Holy Martyrs Nikita, George, Theodore Stratilat, Theodore Tyron, Demetrius of Thessalonica, the archangels Michael and Sichael were the conquerors of demons, usually depicted in the form of snakes and dragons.

60 Teteryatnikova N. B. Images of St. Nikita // Bulletin of the Russian Christian Movement. - Paris; NY; Moscow, 1979. - T. III, No. 129. - S. 180–189. 61 Tikhonravov N. S. Monuments of renounced Russian literature. - M., 1863. - T. 2. - S. 116–117. 20 Istrin V. M. Apocryphal torment of Nikita. - Odessa, 1899. - S. 35.

The popularity of St. Nikita, who was popularly called "besogon", is evidenced by the huge number of his images on vest crosses, encolpion crosses, serpentines and on individual images. Only one plot from the apocrypha was reflected in copper casting: “... stretch out your blessed hand, yat [took] the devil and put it down under him and step on his neck and crush him. ... And we will remove the fetters even [which] were banged [were] on his leg and shackled the devil with fetters ... ". The presence in the house or on the body of a small cast icon with Nikita the besogon, reading the text of the apocrypha about Nikitin's torment and repeating the words of the prayer: "... retreat, Satan, from this house and from this creature and from all these four walls and from four corners" - gave a person confidence in the patronage of the holy martyr Nikita, in protection from all sorts of demonic machinations and even from everyday troubles.

53 Rystenko A.V. The Legend of St. George and the Dragon in Byzantine and Slavic Russian Literature. - Odessa, 1909. - S. 324.

The Holy Great Martyr George the Serpent Fighter enjoyed the same veneration in Rus'. On copper-cast images and folds, an episode from the legend “George's Miracle about the Serpent”, so beloved by the people, was most often depicted. Among the large number of copper-cast objects with St. George, openwork icons made in the perforated casting technique stand out. In their composition, the foundry masters included not only the figure of George sitting on a horse - in armor and a fluttering cloak, with a spear in his hand - but also the maiden Elisava leading a snake. How not to remember the lines of a spiritual verse sung by the Russian people:

And she leads the snake to eat,
Like a cow being milked...

c. 7
c. 8¦ 64

Yes, and according to folk tales, George was considered the patron saint of fields, the protector of domestic animals from death and various diseases, from being eaten by animals. In every Orthodox Russian house one could come across the image of another saint - St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, to whom more often than other saints, they turned with a prayer "for intercession from all sorts of troubles and misfortunes." Taking into account the strength and durability of copper icons, Russian sailors and travelers always carried with them a small icon with St. Nicholas the Wonderworker to pray for salvation on the waters. In copper casting, iconographic depictions of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nicholas of Mozhaysky were most widely used. Despite the traditional character of the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker on copper-cast objects, the variety of decorative motifs is striking, giving each one an amazing elegance. The middle of the icon is surrounded either by a modest smooth profiled frame, sometimes with an ornament in the form of rhombuses filled with multi-colored enamel, or in the form of a vine, then with a completely outlandish ornament in the form of curls ... Masters added to the icon a pommel consisting of hallmarks depicting archangels, the Savior Not made by hands and cherubs - this is how a new image arose! The decorativeness of the copper-cast icons is enhanced by bright vitreous enamels, from blue, white and light blue to rare shades of pink and lilac. On small icons with Nicholas of Mozhaisk, made in the technique of perforated casting, the figure of a saint with a sword and a temple, despite the diminutiveness of the image, resembles monumental sculptural images.

Next to the icons of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, small copper-cast icons with the Great Martyr Paraskeva Pyatnitsa look very modest. Among the people, Saint Paraskeva was revered as the patroness of fields and cattle, they prayed to her for all well-being and domestic happiness, for deliverance from various ailments. The images and texts of the prayers dedicated to "St. Paraskevi, named Friday" were worn around the neck and were considered a means of protecting against all kinds of diseases.

64 Church-folk calendar in Rus' by I. P. Kalinsky. - M., 1990. 67 Shchapov A.L.

As a healer among the people, the holy martyr Antipas was known. And on the copper-cast icons with his image, two letters are clearly visible: “З” and “Ц”, that is, “tooth healer”. This saint was approached with a prayer for deliverance from a toothache: “... I bring you a prayer, let us pray for me, a sinner, to the Lord God for the remission of my sins, and deliver me an unquenchable dental disease with prayers, holy, yours ... ". In the “Tale to which saints what grace of healing from God is given” saints are mentioned who helped a person in everyday troubles. In copper casting, these saints are often represented by specific groups. For example, a small icon depicts the Hieromartyr Charalambius together with the martyrs John the Warrior and Boniface. The unification of the three saints was caused by their extraordinary popularity among the people. John the Warrior, or, as he was also called, the “Warrior”, was contacted in order to regain stolen things and even runaway servants. In a prayer to him there are such lines: "... save from all evil, intercede from an offending person ...". Boniface was also asked "for deliverance from wine drinking". They prayed to save Saint Charalambius from sudden death without repentance, which could overtake a person.

64 Church-folk calendar in Rus' by I. P. Kalinsky. - M., 1990.

The holy martyrs Guriy, Samon and Aviv, the guardians and protectors from family troubles, were especially revered by women. That is why these saints were so often depicted on copper-cast icons, to whom they turned “if a husband hates his wife innocently.” The holy martyrs Kirik and Julita were supposed to help in protecting children from illness. Small icons, very modest and cheap, the surface of which was decorated only with an ornament resembling a wooden carving, accompanied the Russian woman throughout her life. c. 8
c. 9¦

Finally, without the patronage of Saints Blasius, Modest, Florus and Laurus, a Russian person could not do at all ... "For deliverance from the animal case" they asked St. Modest and the Hieromartyr Blasius, and the martyrs Florus and Laurus - "from the horse case." Caring for the "beloved peasant belly" - as livestock was often called - did not leave the owner either at home or on the road. Therefore, they took with them on the road a small copper-cast fold or an icon with images of such revered saints.

67 Shchapov A.L. Historical essays on the people's world outlook and superstition (Orthodox and Old Believers). - [St. Petersburg, 1863]. - S. 53, 63–64. 36 Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus' XI - early XII century. - M., 1978. - S. 299.

Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky were considered patrons of bees. Among the people, special prayers were even composed for the abundance and preservation of bees in the hives: "... Izosima and Savvatey, have mercy on my prayers, a servant of God in the yard or in the forest, on the bee-house of young and old bees ...". On the copper-cast icons one can see the Russian saints Zosima and Savvaty against the backdrop of the walls and towers of the Solovetsky Monastery, and at their feet - "the White Sea and the endless forests ...". On very small images and icons, it was possible to depict the silhouettes of temples, rivers, grasses, flowers of the Russian land, glorified by numerous saints ... Isn't that why the background on small icons with St. Sergius of Radonezh is “twisted” with flowers? Herbs and flowers spread under the feet of the horsemen of the holy princes Boris and Gleb. Images of these first Russian saints appeared on ancient encolpion crosses. When looking at the copper-cast icons, often decorated with enamels or made using the technique of perforated casting, one recalls the lines from the Tale of the Holy Princes: “... You are our weapons, the Russian lands are protection and support, double-edged swords, with which we overthrow the audacity of the filthy and trample the devilish machinations on earth ... » .

And throughout Rus', in every house, people turned to the Mother of God as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor”. In the already mentioned “Tale to which saints what grace of healing from God is given” the icons of the Mother of God of Kazan, Feodorovskaya, Tikhvinskaya and Burning Bush are named. “For the insight of blinded eyes,” the Mother of God of Kazan prayed. The Mother of God Feodorovskaya was addressed with a prayer "for liberation from the difficult birth of wives." “On the preservation of the health of babies,” the Mother of God of Tikhvin asked. The Russian people considered Our Lady of the Burning Bush as a protector from fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but the images and icons of the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow are especially loved by the people. Apparently, they very often turned to the Mother of God with their sorrows, and in gratitude they rubbed the copper icon to a shine with chalk or brick ... And so they came to us, completely erased, retaining traces of their past life.

It is impossible to cover all the diversity of copper art casting, with its iconographic types, forms, richness of ornamentation and enamel colors! Basically, these works came from various foundry workshops of the 18th-19th centuries. But the casting created in the "mednitsa" of the famous Vygovsky Old Believer community, which became a model for numerous imitations until the beginning of the 20th century, was especially revered ...

35 Ozeretskovsky N. Ya. Journey along lakes Ladoga and Onega. - Petrozavodsk, 1989. - S. 174.

Here, at the end of the 17th century, on a distant Karelian land, on the Vyga River, which is forty kilometers from the city of Povenets, an Old Believer monastery began its life. Icons were painted in her workshops, books were decorated with exquisite Pomeranian ornaments, c. 9
c. 10¦ and with the opening of the “mednitsa”, no one left the monastery without a copper-cast fold or icon ... One of the eyewitnesses describes the monastery at the end of the 18th century as follows: which in another building are polished, put on enamel and sold to visiting pilgrims ... ".

5 Vinokurova E.P. Pomeranian dated folds // Monuments of culture. New discoveries. Yearbook 1988. - M., 1989. - S. 338–345.

Most often, among the castings of the Vygovskaya workshop, there are crosses and alignments. Among the latter, the Deisus three-leaf folds were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, to be worn on the chest to a large solemn image for the chapel. It was here that the folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them is the three-leaved fold "Deisus with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, nine figures are represented on the fold. In the middle - the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky. How thoughtful is the selection of the chosen saints on the fold! Saints Zosima, Savvaty and Metropolitan Philip were associated with the Solovetsky Monastery, the successor of the traditions of which the Old Believer monastery on Vyga considered itself to be. The guardian angel and Nikola the Wonderworker were perceived as patrons of the entire monastery, and of everyone who became the owner of this fold. Nicholas the Wonderworker was also depicted on a fold, on the wings of which you can see the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow, the chosen saints with the martyrs Kirik and Julita. These sashes were often cast as separate icons, so popular among the people.

6 Vinokurova E.P. Model of a four-fold fold // Old Russian sculpture: Problems and attributions / Editor-compiler A. V. Ryndina. - M., 1991. - Issue. 1. - pp. 125–178.

To this day, Vygov's bivalve, very small folds with the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity are admired. The craftsmen did not forget to decorate the back with a large flower and cover both sides with shiny enamels. But the glory of the Vygovskaya "mednitsa" was brought by a four-leaf fold with the image of the Twelfth Holidays - the so-called "big holiday alignments". This folding, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of working out miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second alignment - testifies to the talent and high skill of the casters of the famous "copper box". And they dispersed throughout Russia, right up to the taiga monasteries of Siberia, Vygov copper-cast folds, crosses, scapulars ... After the closure of the monastery in the middle of the 19th century, the traditions of foundry were continued by the masters of Pomorie, Moscow, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia - not to list the numerous foundry workshops, yes and we know too little about them... I would like to believe that someday the names of talented Russian foundry masters will become known. And then, in a new light, these modest icons and folds will appear before us, preserving the warmth of the fire of a distant “copper shop” ...

23 Korzukhina G. F. On the monuments of the "Korsun case" in Rus' // Byzantine Time. - M., 1958. - T. XIV. - S. 129–137.

Monuments of copper art casting make up the most numerous group of church items that have appeared in Rus' since the adoption of Christianity. Initially, such works of Christian art were imported from Byzantium, as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds in Chersonese, Kyiv and other cities of southern Rus'. c. 10
c. eleven¦ Greek samples were copied, and later processed, depending on the tastes and needs of the local population. However, imported products could not meet the demand for items of personal piety, intended primarily for domestic use. Therefore, in Kievan Rus, by the beginning of the 12th century, their mass production was being established.

29 Myths of the peoples of the world. - M., 1982. - T. 2. - S. 131–132.

The material from which these products were made not only left an imprint on the artistic features of objects, the nature of the images, but also had a deep symbolic meaning in itself. The widespread use of copper for casting encolpion crosses, vests, icons, serpentines and folds was not accidental. Copper, as a metal, was credited with magical properties. Vest crosses had to be necessarily copper, since, according to biblical tradition, the prophet Moses made “a copper snake and put it on a banner, and when the snake stung a man, he, looking at the copper snake, remained alive” .

Objects of copper art casting are divided into several types: pectoral crosses (from three to twelve-pointed); pendant icons of various shapes; pectoral crosses-encolpions (two-leaved for investing relics and other shrines) with a movable top, bilateral and one-sided, as a rule, with a fixed top; serpentines with an image on the front side of a Christian image, on the back - a head (mask) surrounded by snakes or a snake-footed figure; double-leaf encolpia icons with movable tops; icons are double-sided and one-sided with an eye for hanging; panagias, as a rule, are double-leafed, traveling (road) with a movable or fixed top; folding (from two to four doors); gospel squares and mullions or matrices for them; liturgical objects (censer, katsiya, etc.); khoros, consisting of separate copper-cast openwork plates and relief figures, further mounted on the base.

All these types of products, coexisting and complementing each other, had different purposes: most of them were designed for individual use, some served to decorate church utensils, liturgical books, lamps. In Rus', there were mainly three casting methods used: in hard stone molds; in plastic forms (clay, sand, molding earth); on a wax model with the preservation or loss of shape.

At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 13th century, Kyiv was the main center for the production of copper casting, in the 14th-15th centuries Novgorod the Great took its place.

54 Sedova M.V. Jewelry of Ancient Novgorod. - M., 1981.

Unlike the cities of South-Eastern Rus', Novgorod, which did not experience the severity of the Mongol ruin, retained the continuity of its technology. Pre-Mongolian encolpion crosses, vest crosses, pendant icons and other items found on the territory of Novgorod testify that most of the monuments of this period exactly reproduce Kiev samples or process them in a more simplified form.

By the 14th century, the formation of a local school of copper casting was taking place in Novgorod. At an early stage in the development of copper casting, the craftsmen focused on ancient monuments of the Byzantine circle, mainly on miniatures, hallmarks of chased silver salaries and stone reliefs, as well as on examples of Novgorod fine plastic art. This led, first of all, to the development of a plastic principle in casting, enlargement of details and images in small images. c. eleven
c. 12¦

9 Gnutova S.V. Formation of local types in the Novgorod metal-plastic of the XIV century // Ancient Russian sculpture: Problems and attributions / Editor-compiler A. V. Ryndina. - M., 1993. - Issue. 2, part 1. - S. 47–66.

In the Novgorod art of the 14th century, qualitatively new models of small copper-cast plastic appeared, in which the local democratic tastes of artisans were reflected.

In the 15th century, the Novgorod school of copper casting finally took shape. At the same time, a stylistic and iconographic evolution is taking place, as a result of which icon samples took the place of the main prototypes of copper casting.

The composition of saints on copper-cast items of this time is due to the demand for saints especially revered in the Novgorod environment. In the casting of the 15th century, images of Saints Nikola and George, Blasius and John the Merciful, Cosmas and Damian, Boris and Gleb, Stefan and others predominate.

Under the influence of popular taste, compositions are simplified, iconographic excerpts are reduced, in which only the main characters remain. Forms acquire a mean expressiveness. Simplicity, conciseness and imagery become the main features of the Novgorod art of copper casting in this period. The "handwriting" of the Novgorodians can be seen in any form of art of this time, as it is distinguished by deep conservatism.

Novgorod copper-cast products of the 15th - early 16th centuries have characteristic technical, technological and stylistic features. For example, the main material for their castings is red copper or a reddish-brown copper composition with a high content of pure copper. In addition, the format of products most often resembles a square or rectangle with a width greater than the height. There are also objects with semicircular arched completion.

Casting techniques are simplified - mainly one-sided quadrangular icons with a fixed title are made, casting plates become thinner (1.5–2.0 mm). In addition, the products use the technique of openwork casting with a through background, which is typical for Novgorod metal plastics of the 14th century.

The images are decorated with an ornament in the form of a stylized rope or a plait. This technique came to artistic casting from Novgorod woodcarvers of the 11th-12th centuries. For a lace or chain, a fixed narrow eyelet with a through hole was made. On the front side of the ear, a four-pointed cross was usually depicted in a deep rhombus (an artistic technique typical of the small stone sculpture of Novgorod the Great in the 12th-13th centuries).

Images of figures also have their own characteristics. They are shortened, stocky, the heads are enlarged, given in a strictly frontal setting. Multi-figured compositions are presented with expressive turns, in sharp angles, the architectural background is in perspective. Another characteristic feature is the double-sided images. The reverse side of the icons was not processed, its surface remained uneven, sometimes concave with depressions. The inscriptions were made uniformly, in an abbreviated form. In the 16th-17th centuries, the primacy in the casting of copper images passed to Moscow and Central Rus'. However, the level of casting falls sharply, things become "very unskillful", castings become handicrafts.

Old Russian foundry traditions were on the verge of extinction, and in 1722 Peter I issued a Decree “On the prohibition of the use of carved and cast icons in churches and private houses.” c. 12
c. 13¦

41 Complete collection of resolutions and orders for the department of the Orthodox confession of the Russian Empire. 1722 - St. Petersburg, 1872. - T. 2. No. 885. - S. 575–576; 1723 - St. Petersburg, 1875. - T. 3. No. 999. - S. 31–32.

By a decree of 1723, it was prescribed “... copper and tin cast icons, where they are found, in addition to those worn on the crosses, therefore, they should be taken into the vestry in order: they are poured out greenly, not skillfully and not pictorially, and therefore they are very much deprived of a worthy honor, which for the sake of such, framing , to use for church needs, and that from now on these icons should no longer be poured and the sale of these icons to the merchant people in the ranks is prohibited ... ". However, despite the ban, copper crosses, folds and icons, so revered among the people, continued to be cast.

16 Druzhinin V. G.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the copper foundry flourished again, associated with the Old Believer workshops in Pomorie. So, in the foundry of the Vygovsky Old Believer community, completely new types of products were developed, which were widespread until the beginning of the 20th century. First of all, these are the “large festive sections” - a four-fold folding with the image of the Twelfth Feasts and scenes of the glorification of the icons of the Mother of God. In addition, double-leaf folds “small folds” - “twos”, three-fold folds - “triads”, some types of large and small crosses and a huge number of icons with saints especially revered in the Old Believer environment were cast on Vyga.

The products of the Vygovskaya workshop were distinguished by their lightness and subtlety, the purity of the casting, which conveys the smallest details up to the curls of the hair. But the main difference between the castings was fire gilding and bright vitreous enamels that adorned numerous crosses, folds and scapulars.

New iconographic compositions and forms of folds, scapulars and crosses, the quality of casting and the color palette of enamels - the hallmarks of Vygov casting - were developed in the products of Moscow workshops of the 18th-19th centuries.

16 Druzhinin V. G. On the history of peasant art of the 18th–19th centuries in the Olonets province / Artistic heritage of the Vygoretsk Pomor monastery // Izvestiya of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. - L., 1926. - Ser. VI. - S. 1479–1490.

“Only later, at the end of the 18th century. according to them (Vygovsky. - Note. ed.) Moscow casters began to work on samples, but their products are much rougher than Pomeranian ones, ”this is the conclusion made by V. G. Druzhinin, a well-known researcher of the Old Believer Pomeranian culture.

The history of Moscow foundry business is traditionally associated with the Preobrazhensky community, which since 1771 became the center of the Old Believers of the Fedoseevsky consent. It was established that the foundries were located nearby, in the Lefortovo part.

15 Daily sentinel notes about the Moscow schismatics // CHOIDR. - Prince. I. - M., 1885. - S. 125–126.

In connection with the increase in demand for copper-cast icons, folds and crosses, already in the first half of the 19th century, there were several foundry workshops of the Fedoseevsky consent, supplying not only the Moscow province, but also other regions of Russia. This fact is confirmed by the Patrol Records on the Moscow Schismatics, which are reports of police agents from November 1844 to July 1848. So, in the entry dated March 8, 1846, the following information about the masters is given: “Last year, it was reported about Ivan Trofimov, a petty bourgeois, living in the Lefortovo part, 2 quarters, in the house of the petty bourgeois Praskovya Artemyeva, of the Fedoseev sect, casting copper crosses and icons for schismatic sects. Now, observations have revealed that in the same Lefortovo part, the peasant Ignat Timofeev lives in the stable department, casting copper crosses and icons in large quantities for the priestless split (except for the Filipov sect), and as he has been engaged in this craftsmanship for a long time, he has already founded a permanent trade in cast crosses and icons, even outside of Moscow through the persons mentioned below. The following is a list of persons through whom Ignat Timofeev sent crosses and icons to St. Petersburg, Saratov, Kazan, Tyumen. Crosses and icons cast by him c. 13
c. 14¦ were sent in poods at 75 and 80 rubles per pood, in addition, he sold them in Moscow and its districts. These Moscow workshops not only repeated Pomeranian models of icons, folds and crosses, but also significantly expanded the range of products.

The largest Moscow foundries of the Preobrazhensky community of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, also located in the Lefortovo part, in the village of Cherkizovo and on Ninth Company Street, continued the traditions of Pomor casting. Based on archival materials, the names of the owners of the workshops - M. I. Prokofieva, M. I. Sokolova, E. P. Petrova and P. N. Pankratova - and the history of the existence of these "copper establishments" have been established.

18 Zotova E. Ya. Sources of formation of the collection of copper castings of the Museum. Andrey Rublev // Russian copper casting. - M., 1993. - Issue. 1. - S. 88–97.

The copper-cast works of the Moscow workshops, despite the similarity with the Pomeranian samples, have significant differences: a significant increase in weight, sophisticated decorativeness and a multi-color range of vitreous enamels. Monograms of foundry masters (MAP, SIB, LE ω) and other letters appear on individual copper-cast icons, folds and crosses.

The most numerous group of icons, folds and crosses has the monogram of the Moscow master Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev (M.R.S.Kh., R.Kh., R.S.). Currently, more than 30 iconographic subjects belonging to this master have been identified in museum and private collections.

22 Katkova S. S. From the history of jewelry craft in the village of Krasnoye, Kostroma region // From the history of collecting and studying works of folk art: Collection of scientific works. - L., 1991. - S. 107–116. 25 Kukolevskaya O.S. Copper artistic casting of the Krasnoselsky volost, Kostroma province in the late 19th - early 20th century. // Monuments of culture. New discoveries. Yearbook 1993. - M., 1994. - S. 373–385. 51 Russian copper casting / Compiled and scientific editor S. V. Gnutova. - M., 1993. - Issue. 1–2.

The works of Moscow casters of the second half of the 19th century, which became widespread, like earlier Pomeranian icons, folds and crosses, became models for provincial workshops. So, at the beginning of the 20th century, close ties with the Preobrazhensky community were maintained by the Krasnoselsky workshop of P. Ya. Serov, which carried out orders from Moscow foundries and worked on Moscow models. The Moscow craftsman Vikul Isaevich Odintsov taught the workers of this workshop the secrets of molding and chasing products for about a year and a half.

Thus, during the 19th - early 20th centuries, Moscow foundry workers continued the traditions of the famous Pomeranian “mednitsa”, passing on their experience to the Old Believer workshops in the villages of Krasnoe, Kostroma province and Staraya Tushka in the Vyatka region.

14 Golyshev I. A. Production of copper icons in the Nikologorsk churchyard of the Vyaznikovsky district // Vladimirskiye Gubernskie Vedomosti. - 1869, No. 27. - S. 2.

The popularity of copper casting in Russia is evidenced by the mass sale of this type of product at the Nizhny Novgorod and other fairs. Demand caused the emergence of a special industry of fishing - forging copper images "in the old form." Such workshops also existed in the village of Nikologorsky churchyard, which is 25 versts from Mstera (Vladimir province): “In Nikologorsky churchyard, copper images and crosses are forged in the following way: they are cast in a form taken from an old image, or a cross, made of green copper, then placed on two hours in water in which simple salt is dissolved, then they are taken out and held over vapors of ammonia, which is why green copper turns into the color of red copper and the image also takes on a smoky old look.

56 Meeting B. I. and V. N. Khanenko. Antiquities Russian. Crosses and icons. - Kyiv, 1900. - Issue. 2. - p. 6.

It is no coincidence that the largest collectors of copper castings B. I. and V. N. Khanenko in the preface to the catalog of their collection indicated: “The question of the place where the object was found, in addition to historical interest, is of particular interest in our time due to the huge number of fakes of ancient crosses and scapulars , often beautifully executed, circulating in significant numbers in our markets and mainly in Moscow.

Currently, there are still a lot of monuments of copper art casting, stored in the storerooms of museums, waiting for their researchers. c. 14
c. 15¦

The Andrei Rublev Central Museum of Old Russian Culture and Art, founded in 1947 and located within the walls of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery, has a rare collection of works of decorative and applied art of the 11th - early 20th centuries. A significant part of this collection consists of objects of copper art casting, including various types. The museum also stores works of tempera painting with copper castings embedded in them. The fund of metal products includes molds for casting pectoral crosses, inkwells, buttons, bells and bells, icon frames and their fragments, various liturgical items (monstrances, tabernacles, lampadas, etc.). The collection has evolved gradually over 50 years on the basis of different sources of income.

A special part of the fund are exhibits received by the museum as a gift. This group consists of one hundred monuments and includes ancient encolpion crosses, serpentines, Novgorod cast icons of the 14th-16th centuries, icons, crosses and folds of the 18th-19th centuries.

An indisputable rarity can be considered the figured squares from the frame of the Gospel with the image of the four Evangelists, made by Novgorod masters at the beginning of the 16th century using the casting technique with fire gilding (Fig. 75). These items were donated to the museum in 1966 by the famous Moscow jeweler and restorer F. Ya. Mishukov.

As a gift from private individuals, two serpentines of the 13th century with the image of St. Theodore Stratilates were donated (Fig. 53). One of them was discovered by V.N. Sergeev in Tver, the other was found by E. Mezhov during the Great Patriotic War near Koenigsberg.

The sash of the XIII century encolpion cross “Crucifixion” (Fig. 12), the two-row icon of the XVI century “Archangels and Selected Saints” (Fig. 70), the encolpion crosses of the XIV-XVI centuries (Fig. 15,).

The collection of the Moscow artist V. Ya. Sitnikov (1916–1987), left by him as a gift to the A. Rublev Museum before leaving abroad in 1975, replenished the copper casting fund with exhibits from the 18th–19th centuries (27 items; fig. 131, 162) . The exception is the centerpiece of a 16th-century Novgorod serpentine fold with the image of the Mother of God Hodegetria on the front side (Fig. 55).

In the 1990s, more than two hundred works of copper casting of the 17th–19th centuries from his collection were purchased from V. Ya. Sitnikov’s relatives, including those with rare iconography (Fig. 121), with the initials of Moscow foundry masters (Fig. 179

Similar cross-vests of the XIV-XV centuries with images of Nikita beating a demon and the Savior Not Made by Hands entered the museum fund in 1964 from the collection of D. A. Shalobanov. This collection (21 items) includes the cross "Crucifixion with the Coming Ones" made in Moscow in the 17th century (Fig. 29), the cross "Angel of the Great Council" based on the iconography of the 16th century (Fig. 32) and other items.

The most significant acquisition of the Museum, both in terms of quantity (579 items), and in terms of composition and typology of the monuments of copper art casting of the 11th-20th centuries, is the collection of the Moscow artist V.P. Penzin, bought in the late 1980s. This largest private collection was formed in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of V.P. Penzin’s numerous trips around the Russian North, as well as his close ties with collectors and artists. The collection contains the rarest works of Russian foundry workers from Kyiv, Novgorod, Moscow and other centers. Among them, a group of monuments of Novgorod casting stands out (Fig. 56

After an expedition to the Vladimir region, one of the first icons with an embedded copper-cast eight-pointed cross of the 19th century came to the museum.

A small part of the copper castings of the 18th-19th centuries (35 items) came to the museum in the 1960s from the churches of Moscow, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod regions. In this group of crosses, icons and folds, one can single out the three-leaved fold "Deisus", made according to an ancient model of bone (Fig. 205), as well as the fold "The Mother of God Hodegetria" with rare images of Russian saints for copper-cast plastic - Guriy and Barsanuphius of Kazan (Fig. 208).

One of the sources of replenishment of the museum collection are things (about 200 items) received from the investigating authorities of Moscow, as well as from the regional customs: the cut-out icon “Prophet Daniel * * *

In this edition, for the first time, an attempt was made to generalize and describe the museum collection. The album includes 249 works of copper art casting from the 11th - early 20th century. The presented monuments show a variety of types, forms and decor of copper casting objects.

All items are grouped into three sections with a single numbering: the first section is “Crosses”, the second section is “Icons”, the third section is “Fold”.

The figure captions give the following information about the items: type, name, center of manufacture, dating, material, technique and dimensions in centimeters (in this case, the parameters of items with ears and finials are indicated, for folds - in an open form), a brief description, a link to the publication , in which the image of this item was first published. At the end, brief information about the iconographic features of copper casting products is given, in some cases with reference to a literary source. c. 17
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