Cast copper and bronze icons, crosses, folds in the life of modern man. The Bronze Horseman - an image-symbol
c. 5¦ Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. In Ancient Rus', a cross was an obligatory accessory for every Christian, it accompanied him from birth until his death, so crosses are the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the first centuries of the adoption of Christianity by Russia, crosses were worn not on the body, but over clothing "as clear indicators of Christian baptism." They baptized with a cross, blessed, admonished, with its help they healed, they buried with a cross and wearable icons. The most revered crosses and icons, often with relics and shrines embedded in them, were handed down in the family by inheritance and were family heirlooms.
They swore allegiance on the crosses. “The cross is small, but its power is great,” it is recorded in the annals of the 12th century. Copper crosses are known, which, according to legend, belonged to the Russian saints Abraham of Rostov, Euthymius of Suzdal, Sergius of Radonezh and other historical figures. These crosses were repeatedly reproduced at a later time, and they were given the importance of a national shrine.
Indeed, the support of the Russian land was the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by numerous copper-cast icons and folds, to which Russian people turned with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer in the vast expanses from the White Sea to the outskirts of Siberia ...
However, over the past century, the very special attitude to copper casting that existed in Russia for a millennium has been forgotten in the people's memory. Only oral and written sources have preserved and conveyed to our time some features of the existence of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds.
2 Buslaev F.I. General concepts of Russian icon painting // Buslaev F. I. On Literature: Research. Articles. - M., 1990. - S. 360–361.In the 19th century, the famous philologist and art historian F. I. Buslaev was one of the first to point out the significance of copper icons and crosses. He noted that the originals, from which Old Russian icon painters made copies, were small in size, and this made it possible to transfer them across the vast expanses of Russia, to bring them from distant countries. Metal folds were especially valued, replacing entire iconostases and holy calendars. “These were shrines,” wrote F.I. Buslaev, “the most convenient for transferring, durable and cheap; therefore they are still in great use among the common people, especially among schismatics.
57 Collection of resolutions on the part of the schism, held under the authority of the Holy Synod. - St. Petersburg. 1899. - T. 2. - S. 430.It is no coincidence that reports to the government in the first half of the 19th century reported: “The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is widespread throughout Russia; c. 5
c. 6¦ it has been rooted for a long time among the common people, not excluding people of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are available in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages, over the gates of houses, on ships, etc. Moreover, peasants bless with these icons their children, who go on long journeys or become recruits, and these images then remain with them for a lifetime.
According to contemporaries, in the Arkhangelsk province, “in addition to the construction of churches and chapels, it is a very common custom to bless wooden crosses and pillars ... along the edges of streets, at the entrances to villages, at intersections, at places revered for some reason ... An image of a crucifixion is simply carved into the crosses, and cast copper exaltation crosses, simple icons or with salaries in rizas are embedded in the pillars ... ".
4 Veltman A.F. Adventures gleaned from the sea of life. Salome. - M., 1864.Such a tradition existed not only in the Russian North, in Siberia and the Volga region, but also in Moscow. As far back as the 19th century, eyewitnesses noted that “... on one of the spacious streets outside Moscow, not disturbed by either carriages or crowds of people, you will first see a long piece fence and gates of cunning work, painted with oil paints variegated, but with great taste. Above the gate there is a copper okladen. Now it is rare and only in remote northern villages one can find a cross in a cemetery with a copper-cast object fixed on it ...
66 Shayzhin N. S. Olonets region according to local folklore. - St. Petersburg., 1909. - S. 15, 17.The veneration of the copper cross was also reflected in folk conspiracies that existed in the Russian North until the end of the 19th century. So, in the Olonets province, according to popular belief, in order to heal a sick person, it was necessary to boil the “slandered” water, putting three copper crosses in it. According to the cross vest baked in bread, the mother tried to predict the fate of her son during recruitment, breaking the bread into two halves.
55 Snessoreva S. The earthly life of the Most Holy Theotokos. - St. Petersburg, 1891. - S. 486–488.As miraculous, the Russian double-leaved encolpion cross with the image of Our Lady of Kupyatitskaya is known. The legend connects the copper cross with the town of Kupyatichi (later a village in the Pinsk district of the Minsk province). On the site of the appearance of this cross in 1182, a wooden temple was erected, burned down during the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. But the copper image survived, became famous for many miracles, and in 1656 was transferred to the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.
58 Spassky I. G. Three serpentines from Ukraine // Medieval Rus'. - M., 1976. - S. 361. 30 Nechaev S. Note on the old copper image // Proceedings and notes of the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University. - M., 1826. - Part III., book. I. - S. 136.Among the people, the meaning of the serpentine as a talisman was preserved until the 20th century. In Ukraine, young women wore similar items as protective amulets to help with illness and childbirth. In the northern provinces of Russia, peasants wore serpentines along with a cross on their chests, attributing to them "wonderful power to quench suffering" when applied to sore spots.
The Old Believers had a very special attitude towards copper-cast icons and folds, who revered them as having undergone “purification” by fire, that is, “not by the hands of creation.”
28 Maksimov S.V. Wandering Rus' for Christ's sake // Collected Works. - St. Petersburg, 1896. - T. 2. - S. 259.At the end of the 19th century, the connoisseur of Russian folk life, S.V. Maksimov, wrote about his meetings with the Old Believers, who wore copper icons in their bosoms and did not pray for other people's icons. They “take out their copper icon from their bosom. Putting it somewhere on a shelf, they begin to pray hastily, soon ... Sitting down at the table for dinner, they put these same icons across the table opposite themselves, in order to differ from the Orthodox in this too. c. 6
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Amulets - small scapulars and folds - accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land. So, in 1780, the Russian ship Glory to Russia sank during a storm off the coast of France. Only 200 years later, 80 copper-cast icons and small folds belonging to Russian sailors were raised from the bottom. Similar objects have been found in North Holland. Here, at the site of the battles of 1799 between the Anglo-Russian and Franco-Dutch troops, among the military relics, Russian folds with the image of Saints Nicholas the Wonderworker and Paraskeva Pyatnitsa were found. These small and modest items brought to us the memory of the unknown Russian soldiers who fell in a foreign land...
38 Letters from Archpriest M. Diev to I. M. Snegirev. 1830–1857 // CHOIDR. - M., 1887. - S. 63.Often the choice of copper-cast images was determined by popular prints (“healers”) called “The Telling to Whom the Saints of What Grace of Healing from God Are Given,” which began to appear in the second half of the 18th century. Almost all the saints mentioned in these sheets were most often depicted on copper icons. In the middle of the 19th century, Archpriest Mikhail Diev wrote to the well-known lubok researcher I. M. Snegirev that in the Kostroma province “the images of George the Victorious, Florus and Laurus and Blasius are cut copper in our side ... they wear horses on their chests on trading days, and keep them in houses ... along with images.
44 Porfiridov N. G. Old Russian small stone sculpture and its plots // Soviet archeology. - 1972, No. 3. - S. 200–207.In copper casting - a mass and circulation form of art - it is easy to identify the most revered saints. Among the people, the holy "demon fighters" were considered the quickest helpers, protecting a person from the effects of evil forces. The Holy Martyrs Nikita, George, Theodore Stratilat, Theodore Tyron, Demetrius of Thessalonica, the archangels Michael and Sichael were the conquerors of demons, usually depicted in the form of snakes and dragons.
60 Teteryatnikova N. B. Images of St. Nikita // Bulletin of the Russian Christian Movement. - Paris; NY; Moscow, 1979. - T. III, No. 129. - S. 180–189. 61 Tikhonravov N. S. Monuments of renounced Russian literature. - M., 1863. - T. 2. - S. 116–117. 20 Istrin V. M. Apocryphal torment of Nikita. - Odessa, 1899. - S. 35.The popularity of St. Nikita, who was popularly called "besogon", is evidenced by the huge number of his images on vest crosses, encolpion crosses, serpentines and on individual images. Only one plot from the apocrypha was reflected in copper casting: “... stretch out your blessed hand, yat [took] the devil and put it down under him and step on his neck and crush him. ... And we will remove the fetters even [which] were banged [were] on his leg and shackled the devil with fetters ... ". The presence in the house or on the body of a small cast icon with Nikita the besogon, reading the text of the apocrypha about Nikitin's torment and repeating the words of the prayer: "... retreat, Satan, from this house and from this creature and from all these four walls and from four corners" - gave a person confidence in the patronage of the holy martyr Nikita, in protection from all sorts of demonic machinations and even from everyday troubles.
53 Rystenko A.V. The Legend of St. George and the Dragon in Byzantine and Slavic Russian Literature. - Odessa, 1909. - S. 324.The Holy Great Martyr George the Serpent Fighter enjoyed the same veneration in Rus'. On copper-cast images and folds, an episode from the legend “George's Miracle about the Serpent”, so beloved by the people, was most often depicted. Among the large number of copper-cast objects with St. George, openwork icons made in the perforated casting technique stand out. In their composition, the foundry masters included not only the figure of George sitting on a horse - in armor and a fluttering cloak, with a spear in his hand - but also the maiden Elisava leading a snake. How not to remember the lines of a spiritual verse sung by the Russian people:
And she leads the snake to eat,
Like a cow being milked...
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Yes, and according to folk tales, George was considered the patron saint of fields, the protector of domestic animals from death and various diseases, from being eaten by animals. In every Orthodox Russian house one could come across the image of another saint - St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, to whom more often than other saints, they turned with a prayer "for intercession from all sorts of troubles and misfortunes." Taking into account the strength and durability of copper icons, Russian sailors and travelers always carried with them a small icon with St. Nicholas the Wonderworker to pray for salvation on the waters. In copper casting, iconographic depictions of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nicholas of Mozhaysky were most widely used. Despite the traditional character of the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker on copper-cast objects, the variety of decorative motifs is striking, giving each one an amazing elegance. The middle of the icon is surrounded either by a modest smooth profiled frame, sometimes with an ornament in the form of rhombuses filled with multi-colored enamel, or in the form of a vine, then with a completely outlandish ornament in the form of curls ... Masters added to the icon a pommel consisting of hallmarks depicting archangels, the Savior Not made by hands and cherubs - this is how a new image arose! The decorativeness of the copper-cast icons is enhanced by bright vitreous enamels, from blue, white and light blue to rare shades of pink and lilac. On small icons with Nicholas of Mozhaisk, made in the technique of perforated casting, the figure of a saint with a sword and a temple, despite the diminutiveness of the image, resembles monumental sculptural images.
Next to the icons of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, small copper-cast icons with the Great Martyr Paraskeva Pyatnitsa look very modest. Among the people, Saint Paraskeva was revered as the patroness of fields and cattle, they prayed to her for all well-being and domestic happiness, for deliverance from various ailments. The images and texts of the prayers dedicated to "St. Paraskevi, named Friday" were worn around the neck and were considered a means of protecting against all kinds of diseases.
64 Church-folk calendar in Rus' by I. P. Kalinsky. - M., 1990. 67 Shchapov A.L.As a healer among the people, the holy martyr Antipas was known. And on the copper-cast icons with his image, two letters are clearly visible: “З” and “Ц”, that is, “tooth healer”. This saint was approached with a prayer for deliverance from a toothache: “... I bring you a prayer, let us pray for me, a sinner, to the Lord God for the remission of my sins, and deliver me an unquenchable dental disease with prayers, holy, yours ... ". In the "Tale to which saints what grace of healing from God is given" saints are mentioned who helped a person in everyday troubles. In copper casting, these saints are often represented by specific groups. For example, a small icon depicts the Hieromartyr Charalambius together with the martyrs John the Warrior and Boniface. The unification of the three saints was caused by their extraordinary popularity among the people. John the Warrior, or, as he was also called, the “Warrior”, was contacted in order to regain stolen things and even runaway servants. In a prayer to him there are such lines: "... save from all evil, intercede from an offending person ...". Boniface was also asked "for deliverance from wine drinking". They prayed to save Saint Charalambius from sudden death without repentance, which could overtake a person.
64 Church-folk calendar in Rus' by I. P. Kalinsky. - M., 1990.The holy martyrs Guriy, Samon and Aviv, the guardians and protectors from family troubles, were especially revered by women. That is why these saints were so often depicted on copper-cast icons, to whom they turned “if a husband hates his wife innocently.” The holy martyrs Kirik and Julita were supposed to help in protecting children from illness. Small icons, very modest and cheap, the surface of which was decorated only with an ornament resembling a wooden carving, accompanied the Russian woman throughout her life. c. 8
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Finally, without the patronage of Saints Blasius, Modest, Florus and Laurus, a Russian person could not do at all ... "For deliverance from the animal case" they asked St. Modest and the Hieromartyr Blasius, and the martyrs Florus and Laurus - "from the horse case." Caring for the "beloved peasant belly" - as livestock was often called - did not leave the owner either at home or on the road. Therefore, they took with them on the road a small copper-cast fold or an icon with images of such revered saints.
67 Shchapov A.L. Historical essays on the people's world outlook and superstition (Orthodox and Old Believers). - [St. Petersburg, 1863]. - S. 53, 63–64. 36 Monuments of Literature of Ancient Rus' XI - early XII century. - M., 1978. - S. 299.Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky were considered patrons of bees. Among the people, special prayers were even composed for the abundance and preservation of bees in the hives: “... Izosima and Savvatey, have mercy on my prayers for a servant of God in the yard or in the forest, on the bee-house of young and old bees ... ". On the copper-cast icons one can see the Russian saints Zosima and Savvaty against the backdrop of the walls and towers of the Solovetsky Monastery, and at their feet - "the White Sea and the endless forests ...". On very small images and icons, it was possible to depict the silhouettes of temples, rivers, grasses, flowers of the Russian land, glorified by numerous saints ... Isn't that why the background on small icons with St. Sergius of Radonezh is “twisted” with flowers? Herbs and flowers spread under the feet of the horsemen of the holy princes Boris and Gleb. Images of these first Russian saints appeared on ancient encolpion crosses. When looking at the copper-cast icons, often decorated with enamels or made using the technique of perforated casting, one recalls the lines from the Tale of the Holy Princes: “... You are our weapons, the Russian lands are protection and support, double-edged swords, with which we overthrow the audacity of the filthy and trample the devilish machinations on earth ... » .
And throughout Rus', in every house, people turned to the Mother of God as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor”. In the already mentioned “Tale to which saints what grace of healing from God is given” the icons of the Mother of God of Kazan, Feodorovskaya, Tikhvinskaya and Burning Bush are named. “For the insight of blinded eyes,” the Mother of God of Kazan prayed. The Mother of God Feodorovskaya was addressed with a prayer "for liberation from the difficult birth of wives." “On the preservation of the health of babies,” the Mother of God of Tikhvin asked. The Russian people considered Our Lady of the Burning Bush as a protector from fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but the images and icons of the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow are especially loved by the people. Apparently, they very often turned to the Mother of God with their sorrows, and in gratitude they rubbed the copper icon to a shine with chalk or brick ... And so they came to us, completely erased, retaining traces of their past life.
It is impossible to cover all the diversity of copper art casting, with its iconographic types, forms, richness of ornamentation and enamel colors! Basically, these works came from various foundry workshops of the 18th-19th centuries. But the casting created in the "mednitsa" of the famous Vygovsky Old Believer community, which became a model for numerous imitations until the beginning of the 20th century, was especially revered ...
35 Ozeretskovsky N. Ya. Journey along lakes Ladoga and Onega. - Petrozavodsk, 1989. - S. 174.Here, at the end of the 17th century, on a distant Karelian land, on the Vyga River, forty kilometers from the city of Povenets, an Old Believer monastery began its life. Icons were painted in her workshops, books were decorated with exquisite Pomeranian ornaments, c. 9
c. 10¦ and with the opening of the “mednitsa”, no one left the monastery without a copper-cast fold or icon ... One of the eyewitnesses describes the monastery at the end of the 18th century as follows: which in another building are polished, put on enamel and sold to visiting pilgrims ... ".
Most often, among the castings of the Vygovskaya workshop, there are crosses and alignments. Among the latter, the Deisus three-leaf folds were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, to be worn on the chest to a large solemn image for the chapel. It was here that the folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them is the three-leaved fold "Deisus with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, nine figures are represented on the fold. In the middle - the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky. How thoughtful is the selection of the chosen saints on the fold! Saints Zosima, Savvaty and Metropolitan Philip were associated with the Solovetsky Monastery, the successor of the traditions of which the Old Believer monastery on Vyga considered itself to be. The guardian angel and Nikola the Wonderworker were perceived as patrons of the entire monastery, and of everyone who became the owner of this fold. Nicholas the Wonderworker was also depicted on a fold, on the wings of which you can see the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow, the chosen saints with the martyrs Kirik and Julita. These sashes were often cast as separate icons, so popular among the people.
6 Vinokurova E.P. Model of a four-fold fold // Old Russian sculpture: Problems and attributions / Editor-compiler A. V. Ryndina. - M., 1991. - Issue. 1. - pp. 125–178.To this day, Vygov's bivalve, very small folds with the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity are admired. The craftsmen did not forget to decorate the back with a large flower and cover both sides with shiny enamels. But the glory of the Vygovskaya "mednitsa" was brought by a four-leaf fold with the image of the Twelfth Holidays - the so-called "big holiday alignments". This folding, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of working out miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second alignment - testifies to the talent and high skill of the casters of the famous "copper box". And they dispersed throughout Russia, right up to the taiga monasteries of Siberia, Vygov copper-cast folds, crosses, scapulars ... After the closure of the monastery in the middle of the 19th century, the traditions of foundry were continued by the masters of Pomorie, Moscow, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia - not to list the numerous foundry workshops, yes and we know too little about them... I would like to believe that someday the names of talented Russian foundry masters will become known. And then, in a new light, these modest icons and folds will appear before us, preserving the warmth of the fire of a distant “copper shop” ...
23 Korzukhina G. F. On the monuments of the "Korsun case" in Rus' // Byzantine Time. - M., 1958. - T. XIV. - S. 129–137.Monuments of copper art casting make up the most numerous group of church items that have appeared in Rus' since the adoption of Christianity. Initially, such works of Christian art were imported from Byzantium, as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds in Chersonese, Kyiv and other cities of southern Rus'. c. 10
c. eleven¦ Greek samples were copied, and later processed, depending on the tastes and needs of the local population. However, imported products could not meet the demand for items of personal piety, intended primarily for domestic use. Therefore, in Kievan Rus, by the beginning of the 12th century, their mass production was being established.
The material from which these products were made not only left an imprint on the artistic features of objects, the nature of the images, but also had a deep symbolic meaning in itself. The widespread use of copper for casting encolpion crosses, vests, icons, serpentines and folds was not accidental. Copper, as a metal, was credited with magical properties. Vest crosses had to be necessarily copper, since, according to biblical tradition, the prophet Moses made “a copper snake and put it on a banner, and when the snake stung a man, he, looking at the copper snake, remained alive” .
Objects of copper art casting are divided into several types: pectoral crosses (from three to twelve-pointed); pendant icons of various shapes; pectoral crosses-encolpions (two-leaved for investing relics and other shrines) with a movable top, bilateral and one-sided, as a rule, with a fixed top; serpentines with an image on the front side of a Christian image, on the back - a head (mask) surrounded by snakes or a snake-footed figure; double-leaf encolpia icons with movable tops; icons are double-sided and one-sided with an eye for hanging; panagias, as a rule, are double-leafed, traveling (road) with a movable or fixed top; folding (from two to four doors); gospel squares and mullions or matrices for them; liturgical objects (censer, katsiya, etc.); khoros, consisting of separate copper-cast openwork plates and relief figures, further mounted on the base.
All these types of products, coexisting and complementing each other, had different purposes: most of them were designed for individual use, some served to decorate church utensils, liturgical books, lamps. In Rus', there were mainly three casting methods used: in hard stone molds; in plastic forms (clay, sand, molding earth); on a wax model with the preservation or loss of shape.
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 13th century, Kyiv was the main center for the production of copper casting, in the 14th-15th centuries Novgorod the Great took its place.
54 Sedova M.V. Jewelry of Ancient Novgorod. - M., 1981.Unlike the cities of South-Eastern Rus', Novgorod, which did not experience the severity of the Mongol ruin, retained the continuity of its technology. Pre-Mongolian encolpion crosses, vest crosses, pendant icons and other items found on the territory of Novgorod testify to the fact that most of the monuments of this period exactly reproduce Kiev samples or process them in a more simplified form.
By the 14th century, the formation of a local school of copper casting was taking place in Novgorod. At an early stage in the development of copper casting, the craftsmen focused on ancient monuments of the Byzantine circle, mainly on miniatures, hallmarks of chased silver salaries and stone reliefs, as well as on samples of Novgorod fine plastic art. This led, first of all, to the development of a plastic principle in casting, enlargement of details and images in small images. c. eleven
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In the Novgorod art of the 14th century, qualitatively new models of small copper-cast plastic appeared, in which the local democratic tastes of artisans were reflected.
In the 15th century, the Novgorod school of copper casting finally took shape. At the same time, a stylistic and iconographic evolution is taking place, as a result of which icon samples took the place of the main prototypes of copper casting.
The composition of saints on copper-cast items of this time is due to the demand for saints especially revered in the Novgorod environment. In the casting of the 15th century, images of Saints Nikola and George, Blasius and John the Merciful, Cosmas and Damian, Boris and Gleb, Stefan and others predominate.
Under the influence of popular taste, compositions are simplified, iconographic excerpts are reduced, in which only the main characters remain. Forms acquire a mean expressiveness. Simplicity, conciseness and imagery become the main features of the Novgorod art of copper casting in this period. The "handwriting" of the Novgorodians can be seen in any form of art of this time, as it is distinguished by deep conservatism.
Novgorod copper-cast products of the 15th - early 16th centuries have characteristic technical, technological and stylistic features. For example, the main material for their castings is red copper or a reddish-brown copper composition with a high content of pure copper. In addition, the format of products most often resembles a square or rectangle with a width greater than the height. There are also objects with semicircular arched completion.
Casting techniques are simplified - mainly one-sided quadrangular icons with a fixed title are made, casting plates become thinner (1.5–2.0 mm). In addition, the products use the technique of openwork casting with a through background, which is typical for Novgorod metal plastics of the 14th century.
The images are decorated with an ornament in the form of a stylized rope or a plait. This technique came to artistic casting from Novgorod woodcarvers of the 11th-12th centuries. For a lace or chain, a fixed narrow eyelet with a through hole was made. On the front side of the ear, a four-pointed cross was usually depicted in a deep rhombus (an artistic technique typical of the small stone sculpture of Novgorod the Great in the 12th-13th centuries).
Images of figures also have their own characteristics. They are shortened, stocky, the heads are enlarged, given in a strictly frontal setting. Multi-figured compositions are presented with expressive turns, in sharp angles, the architectural background is in perspective. Another characteristic feature is the double-sided images. The reverse side of the icons was not processed, its surface remained uneven, sometimes concave with depressions. The inscriptions were made uniformly, in an abbreviated form. In the 16th-17th centuries, the primacy in the casting of copper images passed to Moscow and Central Rus'. However, the level of casting falls sharply, things become "very unskillful", castings become handicrafts.
Old Russian foundry traditions were on the verge of extinction, and in 1722 Peter I issued a Decree “On the prohibition of the use of carved and cast icons in churches and private houses.” c. 12
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A decree of 1723 prescribed “... copper and tin cast icons, where they are found, in addition to those worn on the crosses, therefore, they should be taken into the sacristies for this: they are poured out greenly, not skillfully and not pictorially, and therefore they are very much deprived of worthy honor, which for the sake of such, framing , to use for church needs, and that from now on these icons should no longer be poured and the sale of these icons by merchant people in the ranks is prohibited ... ". However, despite the ban, copper crosses, folds and icons, so revered among the people, continued to be cast.
16 Druzhinin V. G.At the beginning of the 18th century, the copper foundry flourished again, associated with the Old Believer workshops in Pomorie. So, in the foundry of the Vygovsky Old Believer community, completely new types of products were developed, which were widespread until the beginning of the 20th century. First of all, these are the “large festive sections” - a four-fold folding with the image of the Twelfth Feasts and scenes of the glorification of the icons of the Mother of God. In addition, double-leaf folds “small folds” - “twos”, three-fold folds - “triads”, some types of large and small crosses and a huge number of icons with saints especially revered in the Old Believer environment were cast on Vyga.
The products of the Vygovskaya workshop were distinguished by their lightness and subtlety, the purity of the casting, which conveys the smallest details up to the curls of the hair. But the main difference between the castings was fire gilding and bright vitreous enamels that adorned numerous crosses, folds and scapulars.
New iconographic compositions and forms of folds, scapulars and crosses, the quality of casting and the color palette of enamels - the hallmarks of Vygov casting - were developed in the products of Moscow workshops of the 18th-19th centuries.
16 Druzhinin V. G. On the history of peasant art of the 18th–19th centuries in the Olonets province / Artistic heritage of the Vygoretsk Pomor monastery // Izvestiya of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. - L., 1926. - Ser. VI. - S. 1479–1490.“Only later, at the end of the 18th century. according to them (Vygovsky. - Note. ed.) Moscow casters began to work on samples, but their products are much rougher than Pomeranian ones, ”this is the conclusion made by V. G. Druzhinin, a well-known researcher of the Old Believer Pomeranian culture.
The history of Moscow foundry business is traditionally associated with the Preobrazhensky community, which since 1771 became the center of the Old Believers of the Fedoseevsky consent. It was established that the foundries were located nearby, in the Lefortovo part.
15 Daily sentinel notes about the Moscow schismatics // CHOIDR. - Prince. I. - M., 1885. - S. 125–126.In connection with the increase in demand for copper-cast icons, folds and crosses, already in the first half of the 19th century, there were several foundry workshops of the Fedoseevsky consent, supplying not only the Moscow province, but also other regions of Russia. This fact is confirmed by the Patrol Records on the Moscow Schismatics, which are reports of police agents from November 1844 to July 1848. So, in the entry dated March 8, 1846, the following information about the masters is given: “Last year, it was reported about Ivan Trofimov, a petty bourgeois, living in the Lefortovo part, 2 quarters, in the house of the petty bourgeois Praskovya Artemyeva, of the Fedoseev sect, casting copper crosses and icons for schismatic sects. Now, observations have revealed that in the same Lefortovo part, the peasant Ignat Timofeev lives in the stable department, casting copper crosses and icons in large quantities for the priestless split (except for the Filipov sect), and as he has been engaged in this craftsmanship for a long time, he has already founded a permanent trade in cast crosses and icons, even outside of Moscow through the persons mentioned below. The following is a list of persons through whom Ignat Timofeev sent crosses and icons to St. Petersburg, Saratov, Kazan, Tyumen. Crosses and icons cast by him c. 13
c. 14¦ were sent in poods at 75 and 80 rubles per pood, in addition, he sold them in Moscow and its districts. These Moscow workshops not only repeated Pomeranian models of icons, folds and crosses, but also significantly expanded the range of products.
The largest Moscow foundries of the Preobrazhensky community of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, also located in the Lefortovo part, in the village of Cherkizovo and on Ninth Company Street, continued the traditions of Pomor casting. Based on archival materials, the names of the owners of the workshops - M. I. Prokofieva, M. I. Sokolova, E. P. Petrova and P. N. Pankratova - and the history of the existence of these "copper establishments" have been established.
18 Zotova E. Ya. Sources of formation of the collection of copper castings of the Museum. Andrey Rublev // Russian copper casting. - M., 1993. - Issue. 1. - S. 88–97.The copper-cast works of the Moscow workshops, despite the similarity with the Pomeranian samples, have significant differences: a significant increase in weight, sophisticated decorativeness and a multi-color range of vitreous enamels. Monograms of foundry masters (MAP, SIB, LE ω) and other letters appear on individual copper-cast icons, folds and crosses.
The most numerous group of icons, folds and crosses has the monogram of the Moscow master Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev (M.R.S.Kh., R.Kh., R.S.). Currently, more than 30 iconographic subjects belonging to this master have been identified in museum and private collections.
22 Katkova S. S. From the history of jewelry craft in the village of Krasnoye, Kostroma region // From the history of collecting and studying works of folk art: Collection of scientific works. - L., 1991. - S. 107–116. 25 Kukolevskaya O.S. Copper artistic casting of the Krasnoselsky volost, Kostroma province in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. // Monuments of culture. New discoveries. Yearbook 1993. - M., 1994. - S. 373–385. 51 Russian copper casting / Compiled and scientific editor S. V. Gnutova. - M., 1993. - Issue. 1–2.The works of Moscow casters of the second half of the 19th century, which became widespread, like earlier Pomeranian icons, folds and crosses, became models for provincial workshops. So, at the beginning of the 20th century, close ties with the Preobrazhensky community were maintained by the Krasnoselsky workshop of P. Ya. Serov, which carried out orders from Moscow foundries and worked on Moscow models. The Moscow craftsman Vikul Isaevich Odintsov taught the workers of this workshop the secrets of molding and chasing products for about a year and a half.
Thus, during the 19th - early 20th centuries, Moscow foundry workers continued the traditions of the famous Pomeranian “mednitsa”, passing on their experience to the Old Believer workshops in the villages of Krasnoe, Kostroma province and Staraya Tushka in the Vyatka region.
14 Golyshev I. A. Production of copper icons in the Nikologorsk churchyard of the Vyaznikovsky district // Vladimirskiye Gubernskie Vedomosti. - 1869, No. 27. - S. 2.The popularity of copper casting in Russia is evidenced by the mass sale of this type of product at the Nizhny Novgorod and other fairs. Demand caused the emergence of a special industry of fishing - forging copper images "in the old form." Such workshops also existed in the village of Nikologorsky churchyard, which is 25 versts from Mstera (Vladimir province): “In Nikologorsky churchyard, copper images and crosses are forged in the following way: they are cast in a form taken from an old image, or a cross, made of green copper, then placed on two hours in water in which simple salt is dissolved, then they are taken out and held over vapors of ammonia, which is why green copper turns into the color of red copper and the image also takes on a smoky old look.
56 Meeting B. I. and V. N. Khanenko. Antiquities Russian. Crosses and icons. - Kyiv, 1900. - Issue. 2. - p. 6.It is no coincidence that the largest collectors of copper castings B. I. and V. N. Khanenko in the preface to the catalog of their collection indicated: “The question of the place where the object was found, in addition to historical interest, is of particular interest in our time due to the huge number of fakes of ancient crosses and scapulars , often beautifully executed, circulating in significant numbers in our markets and mainly in Moscow.
Currently, there are still a lot of monuments of copper art casting, stored in the storerooms of museums, waiting for their researchers. c. 14
c. 15¦
The Andrei Rublev Central Museum of Old Russian Culture and Art, founded in 1947 and located within the walls of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery, has a rare collection of works of decorative and applied art of the 11th - early 20th centuries. A significant part of this collection consists of objects of copper art casting, including various types. The museum also stores works of tempera painting with copper castings embedded in them. The fund of metal products includes molds for casting pectoral crosses, inkwells, buttons, bells and bells, icon frames and their fragments, various liturgical items (monstrances, tabernacles, lampadas, etc.). The collection has evolved gradually over 50 years on the basis of different sources of income.
A special part of the fund are exhibits received by the museum as a gift. This group consists of one hundred monuments and includes ancient encolpion crosses, serpentines, Novgorod cast icons of the 14th-16th centuries, icons, crosses and folds of the 18th-19th centuries.
An indisputable rarity can be considered the figured squares from the frame of the Gospel with the image of the four Evangelists, made by Novgorod masters at the beginning of the 16th century using the casting technique with fire gilding (Fig. 75). These items were donated to the museum in 1966 by the famous Moscow jeweler and restorer F. Ya. Mishukov.
As a gift from private individuals, two serpentines of the 13th century with the image of St. Theodore Stratilates were donated (Fig. 53). One of them was discovered by V.N. Sergeev in Tver, the other was found by E. Mezhov during the Great Patriotic War near Koenigsberg.
The sash of the 13th century encolpion cross “Crucifixion” (Fig. 12), the 16th century double-row icon “Archangels and Selected Saints” (Fig. 70), the encolpion crosses of the 14th–16th centuries (Fig. 15,).
The collection of the Moscow artist V. Ya. Sitnikov (1916–1987), left by him as a gift to the A. Rublev Museum before leaving abroad in 1975, replenished the copper casting fund with exhibits from the 18th–19th centuries (27 items; fig. 131, 162) . The exception is the centerpiece of a 16th-century Novgorod serpentine fold with the image of the Mother of God Hodegetria on the front side (Fig. 55).
In the 1990s, more than two hundred works of copper casting of the 17th–19th centuries from his collection were purchased from V. Ya. Sitnikov’s relatives, including those with rare iconography (Fig. 121), with the initials of Moscow foundry masters (Fig. 179
Similar cross-vests of the XIV-XV centuries with images of Nikita beating a demon and the Savior Not Made by Hands entered the museum fund in 1964 from the collection of D. A. Shalobanov. This collection (21 items) includes the cross "Crucifixion with the Coming Ones" made in Moscow in the 17th century (Fig. 29), the cross "Angel of the Great Council" based on the iconography of the 16th century (Fig. 32) and other items.
The most significant acquisition of the Museum, both in terms of quantity (579 items), and in terms of composition and typology of the monuments of copper art casting of the 11th-20th centuries, is the collection of the Moscow artist V.P. Penzin, bought in the late 1980s. This largest private collection was formed in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of V.P. Penzin’s numerous trips around the Russian North, as well as his close ties with collectors and artists. The collection contains the rarest works of Russian foundry workers from Kyiv, Novgorod, Moscow and other centers. Among them, a group of monuments of Novgorod casting stands out (Fig. 56
After an expedition to the Vladimir region, one of the first icons with an embedded copper-cast eight-pointed cross of the 19th century came to the museum.
A small part of the copper castings of the 18th-19th centuries (35 items) came to the museum in the 1960s from the churches of Moscow, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod regions. In this group of crosses, icons and folds, one can single out the three-leaved fold "Deisus", made according to an ancient model of bone (Fig. 205), as well as the fold "The Mother of God Hodegetria" with rare images of Russian saints for copper-cast plastic - Guriy and Barsanuphius of Kazan (Fig. 208).
One of the sources of replenishment of the museum collection are things (about 200 items) received from the investigating authorities of Moscow, as well as from the regional customs: the cut-out icon “Prophet Daniel * * *
In this edition, for the first time, an attempt was made to generalize and describe the museum collection. The album includes 249 works of copper art casting from the 11th - early 20th century. The presented monuments show a variety of types, forms and decor of copper casting objects.
All items are grouped into three sections with a single numbering: the first section is “Crosses”, the second section is “Icons”, the third section is “Fold”.
The figure captions give the following information about the items: type, name, center of manufacture, dating, material, technique and dimensions in centimeters (in this case, the parameters of items with ears and finials are indicated, for folds - in an open form), a brief description, a link to the publication , in which the image of this item was first published. At the end, brief information about the iconographic features of copper casting products is given, in some cases with reference to a literary source. c. 17
¦
In a coat with an open collar,
With bare head
Slowly passing through the city
Uncle Vlas is a gray-haired old man.
On the chest there is a copper icon:
He asks for God's temple, -
All in chains, poor shoes,
Deep scar on cheek...
ON THE. Nekrasov
Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. That very special attitude to copper casting, which existed in Russia for a millennium, has been completely forgotten in the people's memory over the past century.
Agree, in our modern world of superspeeds, there is no place left for faith in God. Today, for most people, it has been replaced by expensive cars and money. Money has become a cult. But just a hundred years ago, every Russian Orthodox Christian began and ended his day with a fairly simple action - a prayer, offering it to the Lord God, sharing with him all his sorrows and joys, which now seems, to put it mildly, unusual for a modern person. .
But not everything is lost, spirituality is beginning to revive in modern society, because without it the revival of Russia as a great state is impossible. In other words, our country, more than ever before, needs to revive and strengthen immutable moral values, to turn to the origins in order to strengthen the spiritual foundation of society, to act creatively.
Where does the path of an Orthodox person begin? That's right - from baptism. From holy baptism to the hour of death, every Christian must wear on his chest the sign of his faith - the pectoral cross. It is a symbol of our salvation, a weapon of spiritual struggle, a symbol of confession of faith. This sign is worn not over clothes, but on the body, which is why the cross is called wearable. That is why crosses are the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the modern world, gold and silver pectoral crosses are most in demand, and in ancient times they were mostly copper, and it was a very expensive pleasure to make them from precious metals. Copper crosses are still in demand, most of all among the Old Believers. What pectoral cross is considered canonical, why is it unacceptable to wear a pectoral cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other icons? You can read here.
Also, icon-case crosses, which were used by our ancestors, are still very popular. They differ from pectoral crosses in larger sizes and do not have an eyelet for a neck cord. The icon-case cross is placed on special shelves (kiots) among the holy icons in the red corner or is attached to the jamb of the door of the dwelling. They, due to their small size, can be taken with you on travels, hikes, trips, to arrange temporary altars.
Works made of copper, especially pectoral crosses and icons with relief images, had a protective function, and were revered as shrines, amulets from evil spirits, disasters and diseases. Copper, according to popular belief, had "magical" properties. Separately, I would like to dwell on the topic of dual faith, because after the Baptism of Rus' in 988, paganism persisted until the 12th century, and only then it began to gradually fade away. A unique symbol of this time is a medallion-shaped icon - a serpentine, on which a Christian saint was depicted on one side, and a pagan snake-like creature on the other (which is why it is called that). Among the people, the value of the serpentine as a talisman was preserved until the 20th century.
A modern replica of a serpentine with the image of the Mother of God with the Child is very interesting. (Ancient Rus', XIII-XIV centuries), it can be purchased in the online store. The image of the Mother of God on the front side of the serpentine symbolizes victory over the devil and over all evil, according to popular belief, only the devil could not appear in her image, and she has always been a reliable protector from the devil's power. Thus, the protective significance of these objects was especially emphasized.
“A pure image, worthy of veneration”… These words can be used to define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by Old Believer craftsmen in the vast expanses of Russia – in the hermitages of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in hidden forges in the Urals and Siberia – during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. until the beginning of the 20th century.
The new period in the history of copper foundry is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of copper casting. It was difficult to constantly transport large temple icons to a new place. 
Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is in the non-priestly concords, mainly among the Pomeranians, that copper casting flourishes. Like priceless relics, ancient copper-cast icons were carefully inserted into icon cases and placed in wooden picturesque or carved folds.
But the Old Believers not only preserved the Old Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as if they had been cleansed by fire” and not by the hands of “created” received wide reverence among the people. The variety of form, iconography, composition and decoration, Old Believer copper-cast crosses, icons and folds is amazing. And hot multi-colored enamels and fire gilding enhance their decorative effect.
Three-leaf folds "Deisus" were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, to be worn on the chest to a large solemn image for the chapel.
It was during this period that folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them is the three-leaved fold "Deisus with selected saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, nine figures are represented on the fold. In the middle - the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky.
Also, I would like to separately note the four-leaf fold with the image of the Twelfth Feasts - the so-called "big holiday sections". This fold, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular, and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of working out miniature hallmarks, and the ornament of the outer side of the second alignment - testifies to the talent and high skill of the casters of the famous Vygov "copper box".
The pillars of the Russian land were and remain the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by numerous copper-cast icons and folds, to which Russian people turned with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer throughout the vast territory of Russia ... The veneration of saints is associated with the concept of holiness - central in the history of salvation - and its bearers. At the source are the holy martyrs. Jesus Christ is the greatest martyr. Gregory the Theologian said about the feat of martyrdom: “Glorifying the memory of the holy martyrs, we not only participate in this celebration, we participate in the mystery of martyrdom, which these saints revealed…” .
The most revered and dearly beloved saints, both in Russia and throughout the world, were and remain: St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (to pray for intercession, marriage, health and other help); St. Nikita, beating the demon (helps in teaching, heals, casts out demons, helps to repent of sins and free himself from the temptations of the devil, including drunkenness); St. George the Victorious (he is the patron of the military, farmers, livestock breeders); Saint Paraskeva Friday (they pray to her for the patronage of the family hearth; in marital infertility; for worthy suitors); Hieromartyr Antipas of Pergamon (they pray to him for healing, in particular from dental diseases); Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky (they are the patrons of beekeepers, they also pray for help at sea from storms and drowning, for help on the water for those floating); Saint Sergius of Radonezh (they pray to him for the spiritual health of children and for their success in education); Holy Matrona of Moscow (they pray to her for pregnancy, health, marriage, conception, love, recovery, help); Saint Seraphim of Sarov (they pray to him for physical and spiritual healing).
Separately, I would like to highlight the image of the Mother of God - throughout Rus', in every house, as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor,” people turned to Her and turn to Her. The most revered icons of Our Lady of Kazan, Fedorovskaya, Tikhvinskaya and Burning Bush. “For the insight of blinded eyes,” the Mother of God of Kazan prays. The Mother of God Fedorovskaya is addressed with a prayer "for liberation from the difficult birth of wives." “On the preservation of the health of babies,” the Mother of God of Tikhvin asks.
The Russian people consider Our Lady of the Burning Bush a protector from fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but the images and icons of the Mother of God of All Who Sorrow are especially loved by the people.
Small copper icons and folds, easy to carry, durable and cheap, quite often served as a talisman - they accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land.
During the years of Soviet power, the production of copper-cast plastic ceased, only handicraft and small-circulation products were created. But 70 years later, thanks to the successors of the traditions of Russian copper casting, this art began to revive. Modern masters have tried to recreate all the diversity and former splendor of copper plastic, inventing new versions, as well as duplicating the old ones that were created earlier and were used by our ancestors. Poetry of art and metal got a second life!
Online store website offers you a unique opportunity to join one of the most ancient arts - Russian artistic copper casting. Feel the spirit of history through copper-cast plastic, which was created several hundred years ago by the hands of talented craftsmen, and who knows, maybe in this way you will be able to come to faith in God, as it was before, with a Russian Orthodox person. One of the most interesting features is that everyone who took a copper icon or a cross in their hands experienced some kind of extraordinary inner feeling, perhaps this is due to their enchanting magnificence, severity and at the same time softness, which attract and fascinate. Or maybe this feeling is the very grace of God?
Unfortunately, in our modern society, there are a lot of people who do not believe in God. But do not condemn them, for "Judge not, lest you be judged" (Matt. 7:1-6). Give such a person a small icon or a copper icon, for example, with St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. 
And advise him to turn to God with a prayer when there will be a difficult moment in his life, because “there are no atheists in the trenches under fire” - every person sooner or later comes to faith, and let this first step be taken with the help of a small copper icon donated You.
Friends and relatives will be very pleased to receive a copper icon as a gift for any significant event. Such an original gift will leave a long prayerful memory of you, because every time you pray to the copper icon you donated, loved ones will remember you with prayer and warmth of the heart. A copper or bronze icon over time can become a real family heirloom - a particle of the eternal, intangible. It can decorate your home iconostasis, or become a wonderful "travel" icon that will accompany you on your travels!
Today our life has become faster and faster. We spend most of our time driving a car. So that trouble or trouble does not happen on the road, more and more often people resort to the help of miraculous helpers, that is, icons, amulets, holy guides. Icons in the car are a kind of our protection and protection while driving, they provide miraculous help, make it possible to turn to God on the way, pray and ask for protection. Due to its low cost, durability and resistance to fading under the influence of sunlight, a copper icon will be an ideal gift for a motorist.
As an exclusive gift, we are ready to offer you a modern mortise stavrotek - an iconostasis. Modern mortise icons are made to order, from various types of wood - linden, oak, pine, beech, taking into account all your wishes. All carpentry work is done by hand, and we can say with full confidence that the new modern mortise icon will exist in a single copy! This makes it truly unique, and any believer would be pleased to receive such a gift.
We sincerely believe that thanks to our small contribution, spirituality will begin to revive, because without it the revival of the great Russian state is impossible ...
In case of full or partial copying of materials from our site, an active link to the source is required!
“A pure image, worthy of veneration”... These words can be used to define copper-cast icons and crosses created by Old Believer craftsmen in the vast expanses of Russia - in the hermitages of Pomorye and Moscow workshops, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in hidden forges in the Urals and Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. until the beginning of the 20th century.
The new period in the history of copper foundry is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after splitting the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of book writing, icon painting and applied art. Like priceless relics, ancient copper-cast icons were carefully inserted into icon cases and placed in wooden picturesque or carved folds.
But the Old Believers not only preserved the Old Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as if they had been cleansed by fire” and “not created by the Nikonians,” received wide reverence among the people. The variety of form, iconography, composition and decoration of Old Believer copper-cast crosses, icons and folds is amazing. Among this huge array of preserved copper-cast plastics, one can identify works created in specific workshops. It is no coincidence that already in the first half of the XIX century. there were such varieties, or categories of “cast copper crosses and icons” - Pomeranian, Guslitsky (or Zagarsky) and Pogostsky, which were widely used among the Old Believers of different communities and directions.
When looking at this bright and original layer of Russian applied art, one should always remember that the development of copper foundry took place in very special conditions, contrary to the law and the will of the authorities. Russia's need for non-ferrous metal, so necessary for military needs, caused the appearance of decrees of Peter I in 1722 and 1723, prohibiting not only the production, sale, but also the existence of copper icons and crosses.
According to the effect of these decrees, only crosses - vests and chest panagias were allowed. The Old Believers considered only the eight-pointed cross to be “correct”, which was depicted in the center of the male and female pectoral cross. “May God rise again and thwart Him…” - these words of prayer have become an obligatory part of the design of the turnover of crosses - vests.
Despite the existence of this law, which was in force in Russia for 160 years, copper work in the Old Believer environment, among forests, in hidden sketes, reached an extraordinary height of artistic embodiment.
Icons, crosses and folds made in the foundry workshops of the Vyhovsky Pomeranian community became the brightest page in the history of Russian sacred plastic arts. This Old Believer monastery, founded in 1694 on the Vyg River, in Karelia, considered itself the successor of the ancient Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, and its founders, Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, were their heavenly patrons. It is no coincidence that the images of these saints became widespread both on icons and on folding doors. Already in the first half of the XVIII century. Vygovskaya Hermitage became the largest economic, religious and cultural center of the Old Believers. The handwritten books, icons, small plastic arts created on Vygu were distinguished by the unity of the artistic style, which received the name "Pomeranian".
To meet the prayer needs of the adherents of the Pomeranian bespriest consent, first of all, “correct” crosses were needed. Copper-cast Pomeranian crosses with the image of the "Crucifixion of Christ" were cast in an eight-pointed form and a strictly defined composition - on the upper end was depicted the "Savior Not Made by Hands" with the inscription "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God." The same composition is repeated on a small Pomeranian cross, the central image of the pictorial icon, which is distinguished by the subtlety of writing and a pronounced decorative sound.
With further complication of the form, the cross received side rectangular plates with paired images of the upcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion. Similar icon-case crosses often cut not only into icon-case frames, but also decorated picturesque icons. These crosses were cast in various sizes - from very small ones, the surface of which was often decorated with multi-colored enamels - to large gilded ones, decorated with exquisite ornaments on the back. Excellent shaping, fine casting and careful finishing - all these distinctive features of the Pomeranian small plastic arts were achieved by the high professionalism of master chasers, casters and enamellers.
These signs were clearly manifested when creating a miniature composition "The Savior Not Made by Hands", decorated with rare dark red enamel.
The main types of products of the famous Vygovsky "mednitsa" were not only crosses, but also folds with different composition of wings (two-leaf, three-leaf, four-leaf).
Among the repertoire of Vygov masters, a special place belonged to small double-leaf folds, which received the name "Pomor panagia". The form of the ancient Russian panagia, which had developed in small plastic, was creatively reworked by Pomeranian craftsmen. On square doors in medallions on a smooth dark blue enamel background there are compositions with images of the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity. The decorative decoration of another fold is distinguished by a combination of a white and pink background with spectacular contrasting yellow dots on dark “corners”. The reverse side of such miniatures also received decoration - in the form of one strict composition with the image of the eight-pointed Calvary cross or in addition with a pattern in the form of a large rosette flower, colored with vitreous enamels. Later, the Pomeranian craftsmen slightly increased the size of the folding and supplemented it with a third wing with the image of the Crucifixion of Christ. These miniature pieces, decorated with bright enamels with contrasting dots, are reminiscent of precious pieces of jewelry created by ancient Russian craftsmen. Such small folds could be worn as folding pectoral icons.
The same chest icons created by the Pomeranian masters were small three-leaved folds with the image of the Deesis composition. A combination of dark turquoise and white enamel, embossed rosettes-stars on a smooth surface of the background and rays on halos distinguishes a miniature work of the first half of the 18th century. Everything in this fold is admirable - the plastic development of the image and the thoughtful decoration of the front and back sides.
The most popular among the Pomeranian plastics was the new iconographic version of the copper-cast three-leaf fold "Deesis with Selected Saints", which received the name "nine" by the number of depicted figures on the wings. In a certain composition of the saints, each of whom was dedicated to the chapels in the prayer rooms of the Vygovsky community, the idea of the intercession of the Mother of God and the saints of the created monastery was embodied. The variety of decorative decoration of the folds, decorated with multi-colored vitreous enamels, decorated with contrasting dots or a rare gamut using a pink tone, is striking. On the back of the left wing, a composition with the image of the eight-pointed Golgotha cross was traditionally cast, the surface of the other wing could be decorated with a large rosette or cartouche. On the surface of a smooth frame, after visiting the Vygovskaya monastery, it was possible to carve a memorable date, initials or the name of the owner.
The second version of the “Deesis with Selected Saints” folding was also famous, on the side wings of which a different composition of saints was depicted. The compositions of the wings of this fold have become widespread in the form of separate small "one-top" icons.
The program product of the Pomeranian casters was a four-fold fold, or, as it was solemnly called, “large festive sections”. It is believed that originally a model of a large three-leaved fold was made, on the stamps of which the Twelfth Feasts are represented. Later, keeled kokoshniks and a fourth section were added to such square sections - this is how the image of a full four-fold fold was formed. On the first three sections, the hallmarks represent the Twelfth Feasts, and on the fourth - scenes of veneration of the images of the Mother of God. The wholeness of a single creative concept distinguishes this copper-cast work of art, which has become a marching iconostasis. On the reverse side of one of the sections, a composition is traditionally cast with the image of the Calvary cross in an ornamental headband frame. A feature of individual specimens will be the decoration of the back of the sash with a magnificent relief ornament of curling shoots with a cartouche in the center. At the request of the owner, a commemorative inscription could be carved on the surface of such a smooth frame.
After the creation of this four-leaf fold, Vygov historians could probably say about the mentor Andrei Denisov that he "brought and arranged in the proper order the current form in the copper-cast sections, which had hitherto been in absent-mindedness."
It is still unknown who was the author of the four-fold folding model? Among the foundry masters on Vyga, whose names we know from written sources, were Novgorodians and people from different cities and villages. Both scribes and icon painters, who painted pictorial images for the worshipers of the Vygovskaya monastery, could take part in the creation of samples of Pomeranian miniature plastic art.
The high professionalism of the Vygov craftsmen consisted in creating a collapsible folding model, which made it possible to cast not only icons in the form of separate sets of independent hallmarks, but also various iconographic variants of three-fold foldings depicting festive compositions.
One of the most revered among the "desert dwellers" and numerous pilgrims will be a three-leaf fold with the image of the twelfth holidays "Assumption of the Virgin. Resurrection of Christ (Descent into Hell). Epiphany". A special relationship to this type of folding is associated with the main cathedral chapel of the Vygovsky hostel and its patronal feasts.
The accumulated skills of foundry business contributed to the wide scope of the craft - the production of copper crosses and alignments was carried out in 5 sketes of the Vygovsky hostel. Products cast in these remote forges entered the monastery and then were transported throughout the Russian land. Handwritten texts of decrees-instructions on foundry and enamel art, compiled by Pomeranian masters, have been preserved. They shared their experience, advised how to prepare the ground for casting, grind the enamel and put different colors on the alignments and crosses. “Then practice yourself in every business and in all sciences and you will understand clearly and you will be skilled in everything” - with these words the unknown master ends his instructions on foundry and enameling.
Camping iconostases also belonged to the circle of Pomeranian plastic arts, which included in their composition a cross - a crucifix surrounded by hallmarks depicting festive scenes and wings of a Pomeranian panagia, and in rare cases - individual miniature images. Similar small pectoral icons with images of the Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk, the holy martyrs Kirik and Ulita, and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker accompanied a person during his wanderings and travels across the vast expanses of the Russian land. It is no coincidence that the Pomeranian masters created another version of the three-leaf fold, on the wings of which three different plots are connected: “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy. Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita with Selected Saints. Such an elegant gilded fold, cast in one of the skete workshops, like a Pomeranian relic, became a precious prayer image until the end of life ...
Copper-cast icons, crosses and folds, created by talented Pomor casters and enamellers, became models for numerous workshops throughout Russia, including small handicraft establishments in Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and other provinces. Thanks to the work of these rural foundry masters, copper icons and crosses, which became widespread among the people, became a widely accessible type of applied art.
The main place in the assortment of products of these handicraft workshops was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. First of all, the Guslitsky masters cast large eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the “Crucifixion of Christ” and the inscription “INCI” (Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews). Such crosses have become widespread among the Old Believers-priests who accept the priesthood. “The cross is the guardian of the entire Universe, the Cross is the beauty of the church…” - this text has become an indispensable element in the design of the circulation of crosses, which differ not only in size, but also in decorative design. A small cross with a high-relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ, cut into the middle of a picturesque three-leaf fold, is decorated with gilding.
Iconic crosses, large and small, surrounded by icon-brands and crowned with images of cherubs and seraphim on high pins, received particular popularity among the people. A clear compositional solution with a relief image of the "Crucifixion of Christ", a combination of stylized floral and scaly ornaments, a two-color enamel range distinguish one of the expressive works of the Guslitsky masters. The detailed iconographic program of the large kiot cross, surrounded by 18 hallmarks with images of festive scenes, is a bright end to the creative search of the Guslitsky foundry masters. Similar crosses, often embedded in picturesque icons or tinted boards, became decorations for the interiors of many Old Believer churches.
From one handicraft workshop of the second half of the 18th century, perhaps, there are several works - a small icon "Assumption of the Virgin" and middle folds "Selected holidays", "Deisus with selected saints". The same shape of the pommel with the image of the “Savior Not Made by Hands”, the close color range of enamels, covering the surface of objects with a dense layer - these common technological, iconographic and stylistic features make it possible to attribute these products to the same circle of copper-cast plastic. Later, folds with a two-row composition "Deesis with Selected Saints" will be cast with a massive heading, the decoration of which will be a large flower rosette or the image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands".
To the works of the end of the XVIII century. belongs to a small cross - a crucifix, decorated with green and blue enamel, with three-part cuneiform ends of the branches. A feature of this cross is the image at the lower end of the composition "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nikita, beating the demon".
To the best examples of copper-cast plastics of the 18th century. belongs to the three-leaf fold "Savior of Smolensk with the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky", decorated with an elegant color combination of yellow, green and blue enamel. The decorative sound of the image was enhanced by white enamel, partially preserved on the centerpiece frame. The same composition of saints is made on the wings of the Our Lady Hodegetria of Smolensk folding, crowned with a figured top. “I put all my hope in You, Mother of God…” - these words of prayer, not only decorating the copper-cast image, but also filling it with sounding content, became the embodiment of a special veneration for the image of the Most Holy Theotokos.
In the XVIII century. a different composition of images on the folding doors also developed. Festive plots complement the composition of the fold, in the middle of which, on a smooth surface of a blue-green enamel background, there is a relief image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.
Following the ancient Russian traditions, the form of the Guslitsky and Zagarsky tricuspid folds, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis, will find the widest distribution in compositions with images of the Virgin and selected saints, widely revered among the people. The large “creators” “Archangel Michael with Selected Feasts” and “The Passionate Mother of God with Selected Saints”, having the general shape of a keel-shaped completion of the centerpiece and wings and decorated with geometric ornaments, are traditional works of the work of the Guslitsky foundry masters of the 19th century.
It is when you look at these simple objects, made in small rural copper establishments, that you begin to understand and feel what a very special role the copper-cast plastic played in the everyday life of a Russian person, with its joys and hardships. The image of St. Antipas of Pergamon, presented both on small light icons and on folds, was prayed for deliverance from a toothache. The wide veneration of St. Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, the patroness of family and trade, was embodied in a small three-leaved travel fold and in an elegant gilded image topped with a pommel with six cherubs.
The Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita, revered as patrons of the family and children, were depicted both on small folds with selected saints and as part of four-part compositions that repeated Pomeranian miniature images. Another composition, crowned with a complex figured pommel, includes “one-top” icons “Saint Nikita beating the demon”, “Martyrs Kirik and Julitta”, “Our Lady of Kazan” and “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker”.
Such simple and modest images could be made in numerous workshops of the tanned villages of the Moscow region. So, in the villages of the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, which were "fed" by the copper industry, up to 150 establishments are known. But only a few of these workshops were engaged in casting crosses, scapulars and folds. In these rural establishments with traditional production, which included a forge and a “printing house” - a room where “earth” was stored and forms were printed, simple and cheap products were cast, extremely rarely decorated with enamels. .
The masters of these small handicraft establishments tried to expand their assortment and improve the quality of their products. So, in 1882, at the well-known All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition, held in Moscow, Ivan Tarasov, a peasant from the village of Novoye, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province, was awarded "for copper images of very clean work and fairly cheap prices." Later, in 1902, another master Fyodor Frolov from the same village, who owned a small handicraft establishment, presented his copper crosses at the All-Russian Handicraft and Industrial Exhibition in St. Petersburg.
The proximity of the repertoire of Zagarsk and Guslitsk copper-cast plastics and its widespread existence do not allow us to more definitely distinguish the products of each of these numerous rural workshops. So, at the beginning of the XX century. a well-known researcher of Pomeranian literature and casting V.G. Druzhinin classified all the plastics produced in the Moscow province as “guslitsky or tan” and noted such a sign as “lightness”.
Such really light were the products of the Guslitsky masters. Among these works, the casting made in the village of Antsiforovo stood out, which was sold in Moscow by weight by the pood and much more expensive than tan. But we believe that the main distinguishing feature of the Guslitsky sculpture should be recognized as the increased decorativeness of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds. The surface of each Guslitsky image is filled with an ornament in the form of curling shoots, stylized curls or simple geometric elements in the form of triangles, dots or stripes.
Plant shoots with small leaves and flowers adorn the image of the holy martyrs Antipas, Florus and Laurus. Another plant motif in the form of tall shoots with large flower buds, similar to the ornament of the Guslitsky handwritten books, was used by craftsmen to decorate the icon “St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom”. The openwork pommel with the composition "Tsar Tsar", crowned with images of cherubs and seraphim on high pins, will become one of the distinguishing elements of Guslitsky copper-cast works.
The image of the Mother of God, the “warm intercessor”, in Guslitsky plastic will receive its own unique artistic solution. The middle of the fold "Our Lady of Kazan" with the pommel "Savior Not Made by Hands", "Old Testament Trinity" and two cherubs is distinguished by an elegant combination of dark blue and white enamel. A winding shoot with flowers, adorning the halo of the Virgin and repeating in the background as the embodiment in metal of the words of the chant “Like the Unfading Color, we glorify Thee Bogomati”, will become an integral part of the pattern of the Guslitsky icons.
The prayer chant will “sound” on the frame of the copper-cast icon “Protection of the Mother of God”, decorated with vitreous enamel in white, blue and green colors with rare spots of yellow. We believe that a special veneration of this image is associated with the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos at the Rogozhsky cemetery in Moscow, since the 18th century. which became the center of the Old Believers-priests.
The image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, merciful and quick to help the intercessor of "everyone in trouble," will find the brightest artistic embodiment in the copper-cast plastic of the Guslitsky masters. The openwork pommel, the richness of ornamental motifs in the form of a shoot against the background and the nimbus of the saint, stripes of scrolls in combination with blue-black and white enamel create an image of increased decorativeness. Another large image, the entire surface of which is woven with ornaments and decorated with an elegant combination of white, bright blue and yellow enamel, will complete the creative search of the Guslitsky masters.
In the foundries of the village of Nikologorsky Pogost on Vladimir land, craftsmen produced copper-cast plastic, which had completely different features. The masters took into account the increased interest of the Old Believers in the Old Russian "Donikon" works and learned to imitate and even forge icons and crosses in a special way to look like old designs.
The products of these workshops were bought in bulk by offen merchants, who then not only sold icons and crosses in the surrounding villages, but also delivered the goods to the fair in Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. For copper icons, the so-called "pogost" casting, we believe, is characterized by a special plastic development of the image, repeating ancient Russian compositions, forms and ornaments. The skladen "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisk)", close to the works of ancient Russian wooden carving, and the openwork icon "Saints Boris and Gleb", made in the technique of perforated casting, are expressive examples of the products of these rural establishments.
Among the Old Believers, “ancient” copper-cast icons were especially popular, distinguished by a high-relief image of the Almighty Savior, with a two-fingered blessing gesture of the right hand and a closed Gospel in the left. The composition of the icon is completed by fields with a relief text of a hymn dedicated to the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord: “He was transfigured on the mountain, Christ God, showed his disciples His glory…”. To confirm the “antiquity” of the created image, the masters cast on the back of such icons a relief date “ZRV SUMMER” (7102 = 1594), obviously associated with a certain historical event of the late 16th century. The same date is cast on the back of the cross - a crucifix, repeating the iconography of one of the revered ancient Russian samples.
Other features are crosses, icons and folds made by Moscow Old Believer workshops, which make up a huge layer of copper-cast plastic. The artistic casting of the Old Believers of Moscow has become a new stage in the development of this type of applied art. The formation of the largest Old Believer centers in the city contributed to the rapid development of foundry business. In 1771, during the plague, Rogozhskoe (priest) and Preobrazhenskoe (bespopovskoe Fedoseevskoe) cemeteries were founded in different parts of Moscow.
Copper-cast products for the community of the Rogozhsky cemetery were supplied from Guslitsky villages near Moscow. The situation was different with the production of copper crosses and icons for the community of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in the Lefortovo part of Moscow. In a short time, at the expense of wealthy merchants-trustees, workshops were created for the correspondence of books and the production of pictorial and copper-cast icons. It is known that the founder of the community, Ilya Kovylin, traveled to Vyg and brought the text of the charter from there, in the image of the Vygovskaya monastery, the construction of the architectural ensemble of the Transfiguration Cemetery was carried out.
We believe that Ilya Kovylin also got acquainted with the foundry workshops, which brought significant income to the Vygovskaya monastery. Already at the end of the 18th century, in the immediate vicinity of the Preobrazhensky cemetery, on the territory of private households, foundries were established, which began to produce crosses and folds “like Pomeranian ones”. These workshops primarily worked for their communities in Moscow and other cities, whose parishioners "prayed only copper images, and then the work of their co-religionists."
After long disputes with the Pomorians about the correct form and inscriptions, a well-thought-out and reasonable program developed by the Vygov mentors was embodied in the composition of the crosses made in Moscow. Following the Pomeranian iconography, the image of the “Savior Not Made by Hands” was depicted on the upper end of the cross, the inscription was cast over the “Crucifixion of Christ”: “King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God”. The front surface of this cross - a crucifix, made in the second half of the 19th century, is decorated with multi-colored enamels, emphasizing the main elements of the created composition.
A similar inscription: "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) the Son of God" was originally made on the cross, which became the center of the composition of a large pictorial icon in a silver setting by Moscow masters of the early 19th century. But obviously, at the request of the owner, at the upper end of the copper-cast cross, the monogram "IC XC" was erased and the inscription "INCI" was engraved.
Moscow masters were constantly working on expanding the range and decoration of copper-cast works, including small crosses, which were in great demand. So, in the composition of the property of the Old Believers who lived at the Transfiguration Cemetery, crosses are often mentioned - crucifixes "of a smaller size with the Mother of God and the Apostle John the Theologian." For stability, such crosses began to be cast with a small trapezoidal base. A similar extended lower end is also made on the cross - crucifixion with three-part wedge-shaped ends of the branches, the surface of which is decorated with multi-colored enamels.
Iconic crosses with the forthcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus centurion were widely spread among the Moscow Old Believers. A feature of another casting was the date "1879." and the monogram "M.R.S.Kh.", owned by Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, one of the famous master chasers.
In the traditions of the Pomeranian foundry art, the three-leaf fold “Deesis with Selected Saints” is made, decorated with dense gilding. On the back of this fold, the composition depicting the eight-pointed Golgotha cross in a figured cartouche is repeated.
In archival documents of the second half of the XIX century. three-leaved folds with the image of the Deesis composition, which received a new decorative solution in Moscow copper establishments, are often mentioned. The high quality of casting, which conveys even the smallest details on the faces and figures of the Savior, the Mother of God and John the Baptist, distinguishes these samples of the late 19th century. The surface of the flaps is “woven” with a solid floral ornament, covered with vitreous enamels. On the back, in a decorated frame, against the backdrop of an expanded panorama of the city of Jerusalem, the Calvary Cross is depicted, protruding in relief against a sky-blue enamel background.
We believe that the Moscow masters embodied the idea of a large three-part "Deesis", which is a composite composition with a high-relief image of the "Savior on the Throne" and openwork images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel.
Among the Moscow works, the “two-top” image of the “Savior of Smolensky” gained wide popularity. In the iconography of this composition, the kneeling St. Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam Khutynsky reflected a locally revered pictorial image that was on the tower of the Moscow Kremlin and was associated with the capture of Smolensk in 1514.
The appearance in copper-cast plastic of a small double-leaf folding “Deesis. Guardian Angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker”, perhaps also associated with the work of Moscow masters. The idea of heavenly patronage of the Transfiguration community, embodied in the Deesis, was completed in the images of the guardian angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. The appearance of this Moscow version of the double-leaf fold could be associated with the main prayer room in the male half of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery - the Assumption Chapel and its chapel in the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.
The design of the reverse side of this small fold repeats the composition of the famous Pomeranian panagia. A similar double-leaf fold with the image of the "Old Testament Trinity" and "Our Lady of the Sign", decorated with white vitreous enamel, is a vivid example of the work of Moscow enamellers.
The masters repeatedly turned to the creation of various versions of the Old Testament Trinity composition, among which a large-format image stands out, distinguished by a well-thought-out and balanced composition. The “two-topped” image “Old Testament Trinity”, which became widespread in the Old Believer environment, is distinguished by the monogram of the master R.S. Khrustalev.
This Moscow master chaser owns a large and diverse circle of copper-cast plastic artefacts, in which a special place is occupied by the four-leaf fold “Twelfth Holidays”, made according to the model of R.S. Khrustalev. Larger dimensions of the fold, frames with embossed inscriptions above the hallmarks, multi-colored enamels of the traditional Moscow range distinguish this reworked version of the Pomor fold.
The initials R.S. Khrustalev and his student (?), master monogramist S.I.B. Numerous small “one-top” icons were noted, repeating the hallmarks of a large four-fold folding with the image of the Twelfth Holidays.
Such castings could have been made in one of the copper establishments that existed in the Lefortovo part of Moscow on Ninth Company Street. The history of the workshop, which belonged to the Moscow bourgeois Irina and Aksinya Timofeev, is being restored according to documents from the first half of the 19th century. . It is known that the products of this copper establishment were sold not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia. It is with this workshop that we can confidently connect the appearance of the model of the “double-topped” image of the “Our Lady of Kazan”. The combination of multi-colored enamels in the center of the icon and on the wide margins, decorated with a stylized ornament in the form of a vine, creates a bright elegant image. The icons "Our Lady of Kazan", created according to the model of the master Ignat Timofeev, were repeated in numerous castings of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. .
In the second half of the XIX century. the history of this copper institution is connected with the new owner Ekaterina Petrova. The works of the workshop, created during this period of its existence, include the casting of such a large-format image as “The Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk”.
The image of the Assumption of the Virgin belongs to the masterpieces of Moscow copper foundry and enamel art. The multi-figure composition of the centerpiece is surrounded by wide margins, decorated with complex intertwining ornamentation. When looking at this copper-cast image, decorated with multi-colored enamels and gilding, one gets the full impression of an icon in a precious setting. The effective use of contrasting colors of dark blue and white enamel enhances the decorative effect of this piece. It is possible that the original image was created for the Cathedral of the Assumption prayer room of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in Moscow. In the 1870s - 1880s. the model of this large-scale composition was repeatedly "corrected" or "minted" by Rodion Khrustalev.
One of the brightest works of the famous master is the icon "St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom". The composition of the icon with the solemn setting of the figures of saints and the relief image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands", a stylized floral ornament in the form of tall shoots with large buds, decor in the form of stripes of blue, green, blue-black, yellow and white enamel - all this creates an image of increased decorativeness . The basis for this bright creation was a modest composition by the Guslitsky master. Later R.S. Khrustalev repeatedly worked on recreating the image of the three ecumenical teachers and saints, using the model of the first half of the 19th century. Monogram R.S. Khrustalev, the image “The Fiery Ascension of the Prophet Elijah” was also noted, which received special reverence among the Old Believers.
About the high quality of the work of the Moscow master chasers, the memoirs that belonged to the Krasnoselsky caster Anfim Serov have been preserved: “... The uterus (model) ... is made by a master engraver. The work is very difficult, requiring a good master-practitioner… The fact is that the model is pressed into the ground, then when it is removed from the ground, it should come out freely, without taking the ground with it… To make such a full-fledged model, the masters were only in Moscow…” . Such masters were Ignat Timofeev, Rodion Khrustalev, S.I.B. and other chasers, often known to us only by the initials on numerous copper-cast crosses, icons and folds of Moscow origin.
A small copper-cast icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prochorus in prayer to the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands against the backdrop of the architectural ensemble of the Transfiguration Cemetery had a memorable character for the Moscow Old Believers. The copper image of the “Prophet Daniel”, a saint named after Daniil Vikulin, one of the founders of the Vygovsky Pomeranian monastery, had a similar memorable meaning. In contrast to the Pomeranian samples of the XVIII century. with a deaf smooth background, Moscow castings with the image of a saint are made using the technique of perforated casting.
Moscow foundry masters were constantly working on creating new iconographic variants of large and small compositions with images of saints. The image of the martyr Tryphon, depicted with a bird in his hand, was widely revered among the Old Believers. An extended version of the story about the rescued princess was reflected in numerous castings depicting the scene of the “Miracle of George about the serpent”. Saints John the Warrior, Charalampius and Boniface, depicted in the middle of a small copper-cast icon, were revered as an assistant
The Bronze Horseman - a monument sculpted by Falconet - was an allegorical depiction of Peter and his deeds. Long before the opening of the monument, back in 1768, by order of Catherine II, its plaster model was put on display for the public to see, and the official interpretation of the allegory was printed in the newspapers, and the “properties” of the monument were listed. “In order to find out the properties of the statue now being made by Mr. Falconet, it is necessary to know that Emperor Peter the Great is depicted striving for a quick run to a steep mountain that forms the base, and stretching out his right hand to his people. This mountain of stone, which has no other adornment, as soon as its natural appearance, marks the difficulties suffered by Peter I; the galloping of a runner is the speedy course of his affairs. The right hand of the country does not require explanation.
The Bronze Horseman - an image-symbol - is the ideological center of the poem. All the events of the Petersburg story are connected with him, Yevgeny’s life irresistibly leads him to the monument, the theme of the city naturally closes on the monument to the one whose “fatal will” the city was founded. Finally, the flood that broke out in the capital threatened the monument as well; - “the flood played” on the square where the bronze horseman towered, and “predatory waves crowded, rebelling viciously around him.” The "evil rebellion" of the "predatory waves" against the Bronze Horseman highlighted the main metamorphosis of the image of Peter. The living personality of Peter in the Introduction turned into a monument in the Petersburg story, into an idol. The living is opposed to the dead, acting in its bronzed imperial majesty.
This is just a statement of duality. The question is - did Petersburg become a city of captivity? - is not put, yes, and was not yet realized by Pushkin. In The Bronze Horseman both the question is posed and the answer is given: the spirit of bondage is peculiar to the city as a citadel of autocracy. This answer, as a result of artistic research, is most fully given in the symbolic image of the monument.
Radishchev was the first to introduce the huge theme of the Bronze Horseman into literature: he was present at the opening of the monument on August 7, 1782, and in his “Letter to a friend living in Tobolsk, but duty bound by his title” gave a description of the “powerful horseman”, and most importantly, not limited to guessing “the thoughts of the sculptor ” and the meaning of his allegory (which means “the steepness of the mountain”, the snake “lying on the way”, the head, “crowned with laurels”), wisely interpreted the activities of Peter I.
- The city is magnificent, the city is poor,
- Boredom, cold and granite.
- Spirit of bondage, slender appearance,
- The vault of heaven is green-pale,
The idea of the dual nature of St. Petersburg had long tormented and disturbed Pushkin. She broke through in a short lyric poem in 1828:
After the Introduction, the Petersburg story begins, the plot of which is the life and death of a resident of the capital, a small official Yevgeny. And the image of the city immediately changes - the image-symbol acquires even greater scale, its content is enriched and aggravated - it appears in its new face.
A new image-symbol appears - a monument, a statue, an idol on a bronze horse. He, too, turns out to be merged with the new face of the city - a stronghold of autocracy, highlighting a different face of Peter - the emperor. In the two faces of the city, acting in the image-symbol, the inconsistency of the figure of Peter is manifested - a wise man-doer and an autocratic emperor. What the people created turned out to be turned against them - the capital of the empire personifies the power of the autocrats, their inhuman policy. The image-symbol of the city acquired a sharply political character when the symbol of the capital city intersected and interacted with the image-symbol of the monument, the Bronze Horseman.
What is this new face of the city? Petersburg appears as a stronghold of Russian autocracy, as a stronghold of autocracy; it is fundamentally and consistently hostile to man. The capital of Russia, created by the people, turned into a hostile force both for himself and for the individual V person. That is why gloomy, dark colors appear, rivers that disturb the imagination (“Over the darkened Petrograd November breathed autumn chill”), the Neva became formidable, foreshadowing misfortune (“Splashing with a noisy wave At the edges of its slender fence, the Neva rushed about like a sick person In her bed restless"), the streets were homeless and anxious ("It was already late and dark; Angrily the rain beat against the window, And the wind blew, howling sadly").
Radishchev gave an answer to the question why any monarch, including an enlightened one, cannot express the interests of the people: “And I will say that Peter could have been more glorious, ascending himself and exalting his fatherland, asserting private liberty; but if we have examples that kings left their dignity in order to live in peace, which did not come from generosity, but from the satiety of their dignity, then there is no example until the end of the world, perhaps there will not be that the king voluntarily missed something from his power, sitting on the throne"
Copper-cast plastic is a remarkable and not fully explored phenomenon of Russian artistic culture, which has a thousand-year history. Determining the significance of copper crosses, icons and folds in the life of the Russian people, F.I. Buslaev, a well-known philologist and art critic of the 19th century, wrote: “These were the most convenient shrines for transferring, durable and cheap; therefore they are still in great use among the common people ... ". These words can rightfully be attributed to any region of Russia, including the Moscow province, where during the XVIII - XX centuries. not only revered copper-cast images, but also engaged in their production.
A defining milestone in the history of copper casting was the decree of Peter I of January 31, 1723 “On the prohibition of having icons of private individuals in parish churches; also pour and sell sacred images of copper and tin in rows. This decree put under control the production, sale and existence of cast copper items that should have been "used for church needs." Thus, already at the beginning of the XVIII century. the policy of the state authorities in relation to copper plastic was determined. It was under these conditions, which put the foundry business in an illegal position, that the masters of the Old Believers of different directions (bespopovtsy and priests) managed not only to preserve ancient Russian traditions, but also to create new samples of crosses, icons and folds.
Thanks to the talent of the Pomor, Moscow, Guslitsky, Zagarsky and Vladimir masters, copper drinking became an accessible art form that became widespread in cities and villages throughout Russia. This material, heterogeneous in terms of material and technological characteristics, is striking in its diversity, ranging from form, iconography, composition and ending with decorative decoration. All these signs are the basis for the classification of a significant layer of preserved copper-cast small plastic.
In the first half of the XIX century. The problem of classifying copper castings was of interest not only to historians and archaeologists, but also to officials of the Ministry of the Interior. So, in one of the documents of the 1840s. it says: “... casting copper crosses and icons, known under the names: Zagorsk, Pomor, Pogost and others, of which the first two varieties are cast in Moscow, and the last in Vladimir province. The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is widespread throughout Russia, it has been rooted for a long time among the common people, not excluding people of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are found in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages above the gates of houses , on courts, etc. Moreover, with these icons, the peasants bless their children, who leave for long journeys or enter the recruits, and these images then remain with them for a lifetime ... ". This official document is the first attempt known to us to understand copper casting, to determine its varieties and, most importantly, the distinctive features of each of the above groups. When characterizing the objects, the “best finish” of the so-called Pomeranian crosses and folds and the low quality of the casting of tan and churchyard products are noted, on which “it is difficult to distinguish images”.
In the above classification, only 3 categories are named, or varieties of copper casting - Pomor, Zagar, Pogost. For the first time, the mention of Guslitsky casting is found in the materials of the Vladimir local historian I.A. Golysheva: “Copper icons are divided into 4 categories: Zagarsky (Guslitsky), Nikologorsky (Nikologorsky churchyard), ancient or Pomeranian (for schismatics of the Pomor sect) and new. The new ones are intended for the Orthodox, and the old ones are for schismatics, who are poured with drawings special for them.
In general, it becomes clear that the Old Believer copper-cast plastic differed in categories, including in their definition the place of origin and production. Each of these varieties had significant differences regarding not only the quality of casting, but, above all, iconography and, consequently, existence among different groups of the population. Thus, Pomor casting became widespread among the Old Believers-bespopovtsy (Pomortsy, Fedoseyevtsy, Filippovtsy), who did not recognize the priesthood, and Guslitsky was revered by the Old Believers-priests. In the future, according to the accepted samples (Pomeranian, Guslitsky, etc.), icons, crosses and folds were made in numerous foundry shops throughout Russia.
When classifying Guslitsky and Zagorsky castings, we will have to recall and give all the information known to us that is relevant to the production and characteristics of these categories. Only in this case it is possible to determine what was meant by "Guslitsky and / or tan casting".
The qualitative difference between these groups of casting is evidenced by the data given in the catalog of the Old Believer icon, icon-case and book trade of M.P. Vostryakov’s heirs. It is known that at the beginning of the 20th century N.M. Vostryakov had trading places in Moscow in the Ilyinsky Row and at the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. Among the wide range of Old Believer products are not only books and church utensils, but also copper-cast products. So, for example, icons and crosses of the "best Pomeranian work" are given with an indication of the iconography and price per piece. Other categories of copper-cast products were sold by weight at a price per pound: "tan casting from 18 to 22 rubles." and "Antsifor casting from 30 to 38 rubles." We believe that a significant difference in price also indicated a difference in the quality of copper icons, crosses and folds, which obviously came from different workshops. Information about the Zagar foundries is contained in published materials on the history of handicrafts in the Moscow province. Among the villages of the Novinskaya volost of the Bogorodsk district, which “feed” on the copper industry, the following are mentioned: the village of Averkievo - 7 workshops, the village of Alferovo - 17 workshops, the village of Danilovo - 22 workshops, the village of Dergaevo - 15 workshops, the village of Krupino - 12 workshops, the village of Novaya - 8 workshops, the village of Perkhurovo - 14 workshops, the village of Pestovo - 13 workshops, the village of Shibanovo - 9 workshops, etc. (a total of 139 copper establishments are indicated).
It should be noted that among these workshops, only a few were engaged in casting images and folds. So, in the village of Novoe (which is attributed to Guslitsy by another author), only 3 owners are indicated - A.D. Afanasiev, I.M. Mikhailov, I.T. Tarasov, who had from 6 to 11 workers, including adult family members. The cost of annually produced products was 5-10 thousand rubles.
The given data could change in connection with the demand for products. For example, in the village of Kostino (Zaponorskaya volost), there were isolated cases of icon painters switching “to casting copper images and folds”.
When analyzing the activities of these institutions with a traditionally established production, which included a forge and a "printing", such a feature of the tan variety as a rare use of enamels to decorate the surface of copper-cast objects is noted.
The low quality of tan products is evidenced by the information provided by the Krasnoselsky foundry master A.P. Serov (1899-1974): “Pectoral crosses and icons were cast in Zagarye. The production of these products there was not famous - there was no purity in the casting and they said this: bad as tanned ones. (For these products, their front side was not processed with a file. Icons and crucifixion crosses were so often faked to look like old castings).”
But obviously this characteristic cannot be attributed to the work of all tanned masters. So, at the famous All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition of 1882, held in Moscow, among 12 exhibitors on copper products, who presented bells, candlesticks, ashtrays and other items, a peasant from the village of Novoe Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province Tarasov Ivan Ivanovich was awarded an award "for copper image of very clean work and fairly cheap prices.” Later, in 1902, craftsman Fyodor Frolov from the same village exhibited his copper crosses at the All-Russian Handicraft and Industrial Exhibition in St. Petersburg. The given brief information allows us to talk about the small possibilities of this handicraft institution: “Production worth up to 400 rubles / year. 3 men work, 1 of them is hired. Material from Moscow in the amount of up to 220 rubles / year. Sales to various locations. Production is manual. Works since 1890.
So, what kind of casting was called tan? This category of copper-cast plastic can be tentatively attributed to crosses, icons and folds, which are distinguished primarily by the absence of filing on the front and back sides, significant weight and rare use of enamels.
As an example of a tan product of the second half of the 19th century. a small four-part icon “Martyrs Kirik and Ulita. Savior Not Made by Hands. Our Lady of Vladimir. Our Lady of the Sign”, crowned with an ogpavia “The Savior Not Made by Hands” (Fig. 1). Similar icons depicting the martyrs Kirik and Ulita were widely used among the people.
The proximity of the repertoire of Zagarsk and Guslitsky copper-cast plastics and its widespread existence made it difficult to clearly distinguish each group. So, at the beginning of the XX century. V.G. Druzhinin, a well-known researcher of Pomeranian literature and plastic arts, classified all drinking produced in the Moscow province as “guslitsky or tanned”. He wrote: “In Moscow, apparently, the casting of priestly masters prevailed; in the eastern part of the Moscow province and the border part of the Vladimir province adjacent to it, there is a place called Guslitsy. Cast icons still work there in a handicraft way; images on them of a very poor design; roughly trimmed, for the most part without enamel, and differ sharply from Pomeranian ones, although they are lightweight.
From this generalized characteristic, one should pay attention to such an important feature as "lightness". We believe that in this case we are talking about casting Guslitsky production. It is to this category that the so-called "Antsifor casting" can be attributed, which was sold in Moscow more expensive than tan. In addition, it is known that already in the XVIII century. icon painters worked in the village of Antsiforovo.
An analysis of all the information provided about the Old Believer copper plastic of the 18th - 20th centuries, which existed in the Moscow province, makes it possible to determine the repertoire of Guslitsky casting. The main place in its composition was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. Guslitsky craftsmen cast pectoral male and female crosses, eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ and the title “I NCI” (Fig. 2) and icon-case crosses of various sizes, complemented by plates with groups of forthcoming ones, as well as icon-stamps with twelfth holidays and crowned , images of cherubs.
Icons and folds with images of the Savior and the Mother of God, Saints Nicholas the Wonderworker, Blasius, Athanasius, George, Florus and Laurus, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa - this is not a complete range of compositions created by masters near Moscow. Following ancient Russian traditions, the three-leaved folds of Guslitsky casting have a special shape, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis. The fold with the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisk) is a vivid example of the work of the Guslitsky master (Fig. 3). In the centerpiece, which has a keeled completion in the form of a kokoshnik, the saint is represented with a sword and a temple (hail) in his hands. In the upper part of the wings there is a divided composition “The Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos”, in the hallmarks - “The Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem”, “The Presentation of the Lord”; "The Resurrection of Christ" ("The Descent into Hell") and "The Ascension of the Lord". Such Guslitsky "creators", decorated not only with a plant curly shoot and a frame with a geometric ornament, but also decorated with white and blue enamel, are the most common type of copper-cast products. Light, with "extra", i.e. processed surface of the turnover, relatively inexpensive Guslitsky icons and folds enjoyed special reverence throughout the 18th - 20th centuries.
These simple copper-cast images, distinguished by their original form and decorative decoration, allow us to speak about the existence of an independent artistic direction - Guslitsky casting.
V.Ya. Zotova
Candidate of Historical Sciences,
Senior Researcher at the Central Museum
ancient Russian culture and art. Andrey Rublev,
Custodian of the copper casting fund (Moscow)