Bordovskaya N., Rean A. Pedagogy. Duka N.A. Introduction to pedagogy. Questions and tasks for self-control

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, the discrepancy between the state of school affairs and the new socio-economic conditions was revealed with all severity. This led to the emergence of a large number of different reform pedagogical movements. All reformer teachers were unanimous in the requirement that the school should not only impart knowledge, but also take care of the general development of children, developing their ability to observe facts, make generalizations, and independently acquire knowledge. Most teachers who were looking for ways to reform schools were supporters of a combination of mental and manual labor and demanded that the age and individual characteristics of children be taken into account in the process of upbringing and teaching.

The German teacher is one of the teacher-reformers Georg Kerschensteiner is one of the theorists of “civic education”. G. Kershensteiner considered the labor school to be the main means of education, which should replace the old book school. In his opinion, mathematics, science, drawing and labor lessons should play a large role in school curricula. Any school should be equipped with special workshops, have a school garden and a school kitchen, where students could practice practical work skills. G. Kershensteiner considered active teaching methods with extensive use of visual aids, practical work, and excursions to be the most effective.

Thus, G. Kershensteiner closely linked civic education with teaching the child to conscientiously work for the benefit of the state. In his article “The School of the Future is a School of Work” he wrote: “We need school workshops to educate people who would understand the purpose and good of the state union and would devote themselves to its service. We need them because it is not the book that is the bearer of culture, but the work, dedicated, sacrificing itself in the service of people or some great truth.”

The reform ideas of G. Kershensteiner gave a significant impetus to the development of ideas about civic education and the role of vocational training in the life of every member of society.

Another direction of reform pedagogy was experimental pedagogy, the founder of which was Ernst Meimann, a German teacher and psychologist.

The main goal of experimental pedagogy, according to Maiman, is to give general pedagogy an empirical basis.

The subject of empirical study is the object of education (the child), the psychological and physiological characteristics of the child’s school work (memorization techniques, “mental hygiene” techniques, etc.), didactic techniques, and school organization. He considered the methods of experimental pedagogy not only direct experimentation, but also direct systematic observation of children, analysis of the products of children's creativity (drawings, diaries, etc.). These methods are still considered the main methods of scientific and pedagogical research. The ideas expressed by E. Maiman for an integrated approach to the study of child development, individualization of education, and wider involvement of practicing teachers in scientific research also remain relevant.

Another German teacher became a follower of E. Meiman in the field of experimental pedagogy Wilhelm Lai He attached decisive importance to the organization of action in pedagogical practice. It is the action of the student together with his peers that, according to Lai, constitutes the meaning of education, decisively contributing to the socialization of students.

With the help of a didactic experiment, he sought to determine the conditions for successful learning and substantiate the optimal system of visual aids and teaching methods. He attached particular importance to educational modeling, chemical and physical experiments, and drawing.

Lai believed that the “school of action” could change social reality and influence the teaching methods of certain school subjects: science, mathematics, drawing, etc.

Among the teacher-reformers of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. include the American teacher J. Dewey, who is considered the author of "pragmatic pedagogy".

The goal of Dewey's theory of education is the formation of an individual who can “adapt to various situations” in conditions of “free enterprise.” He contrasted the school system, based on the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, with learning “by doing,” in which all knowledge was extracted from the child’s practical activities and personal experience. Dewey schools did not have a permanent program with a consistent system of subjects studied, but only the knowledge necessary for the personal experience of students was selected. In D. Dewey's methodology, games, improvisation, excursions, and amateur performances occupied a large place. The role of the teacher was reduced mainly to guiding the students’ independent activities and awakening their curiosity.

Dewey's pedagogical concept had a great influence on the general nature of the educational work of schools in the USA and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 20s. This influence was reflected in the creation of comprehensive programs in which educational material is grouped around "whole areas of life" related to children's interests and in project methods.

Today, Dewey's ideas are studied in connection with the ideas of complex, integrated learning, increasing the activity and independence of students in the learning process.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Present a comparative analysis of the didactic ideas of developmental and educational training in the works of A. Disterweg, I. Herbart, I.G. Pestalozzi.

2. Name the main features of the theory and practice of the Enlightenment.

3. Highlight the main features of reformist pedagogy.

1. Baranov S.P. Pedagogy/ S.P. Baranov. – M.: VLADOS, 2001. – 260 p.

2. Bart P.V. Elements of education and training / P.V. Bart. – M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1999. – 256 p.

3. Bim Bad B.M. Pedagogical trends at the beginning of the twentieth century. – M., 1994.

4. Blonsky P. P. “Selected pedagogical and psychological works.” Edited by A.V. Petrovsky M., Pedagogy 1979

5. Issues of education and training: a course of lectures on pedagogy. // Ed. N.N. Petukhova. – M.: Uchpedgiz, 1960. – 167 p.

6. Gessen S.I. Fundamentals of Pedagogy./ S.I. Gessen, M.: VLADOS, 2001.– 345

7. Dzhurinsky, A.N. History of foreign pedagogy./ A.N. Dzhurinsky - M.: Academy, 1998. - 174 p.

8. Dzhurinsky, A. N. Foreign school: history and modernity.. / A. N. Dzhurinsky - M.: Academy, 1992. – 78 p.

9. Dzhurinsky A.N. History of pedagogy. – M., 1999.

10. Dzhurinsky A.N. Foreign school: history and modernity. – M., 1992.

11. Konstantinov N.A. and others. History of Pedagogy: A Textbook for Pedagogical Students. Inst. – M.: Education, 1982.

12. Modzalevsky, L.N. Essay on the history of education and training from ancient times./ L.N. Modzalevsky, M.: ARKTI, 2002. – 312 p.

13. Essays on the history of school and pedagogy., Part 2. – M., 1989.

14. Piskunov A.I. “History of Pedagogy” / part 2 M., 1997 p. 33-39

15. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 1993.

16. Reader on the history of foreign pedagogy. – M., 1971.

Only science brings consciousness and a critical attitude where, without it, a skill acquired from nowhere and the lack of accountability in a life not created by us reigns. For education, this science is pedagogy. It is nothing more than awareness of education... Pedagogy sets the rules for the art of human education. A living person is the material for the work of a teacher and educator.
S.I. Hesse

Chapter 5. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences

General idea of ​​pedagogy as a science

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek word “paidagos” (“paid” - “child”, “gogos” - “lead”), which means “child breeding” or “child education”.
In Ancient Greece, this function was carried out directly - teachers were originally called slaves who accompanied their master's children to school. Later, teachers were already civilian people who were engaged in instructing, raising and training children. By the way, in Rus' (XII century) the first teachers received the name “masters”. These were free people (sacristans or laymen), who taught children reading, writing, prayers at home or at home, as it is said in one “Life”: “... write books and teach students literate tricks.”
It should be noted that each person experimentally acquires certain knowledge in the field of upbringing, training and education, and establishes some dependencies between various pedagogical phenomena. Thus, primitive people already possessed knowledge of raising children, which was passed on from one generation to another in the form of customs, traditions, games, and everyday rules. This knowledge is reflected in sayings and proverbs, myths and legends, fairy tales and anecdotes (for example: “Repetition is the mother of learning,” “The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree,” “Live forever, learn,” etc.), which formed the content folk pedagogy. Their role is extremely great both in the life of society, an individual family, and a specific person. They. help him interact with other people, communicate with them, engage in self-improvement, and perform parental functions.
Folk pedagogy, having emerged as a response to an objective social need for education, conditioned by the development of people’s working activities, of course, cannot replace books, school, teachers, and science. But it is older than pedagogical science, education as a social institution, and initially existed independently of them.
However, pedagogical science, unlike everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, generalizes scattered facts and establishes causal connections between phenomena. She does not so much describe them as explain them, answer questions about why and what changes occur in human development under the influence of training and upbringing. This knowledge is necessary to anticipate and manage the process of personality development. At one time, the great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky warned against empiricism in pedagogy; he correlated pedagogical practice without theory with witchcraft in medicine.
However, everyday pedagogical experience, despite the oral form of its existence, did not disappear, but was passed on from century to century, withstood tests, changed guidelines and values, but on the whole was preserved in the form of the pedagogical culture of the people, their pedagogical mentality and today forms the basis of scientific pedagogical knowledge . That is why K. D. Ushinsky, speaking out against empiricism in teaching and upbringing, did not identify it with folk pedagogy, but, on the contrary, argued that, turning to the people, education will always find an answer and assistance in the living and strong feeling of a person who acts much stronger than conviction. If it does not want to be “powerless, it must be popular.”
To define pedagogy as a science, it is important to establish the boundaries of its subject area or answer the question: what does it study? In turn, the answer to this question involves understanding its object and subject.

Object, subject and functions of pedagogy

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present, there are three concepts. Representatives of the first of them believe that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field of human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality are represented (space, culture, politics, etc.).
Other scientists assign pedagogy the role of an applied discipline, the function of which is to indirectly use knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems arising in the field of education or upbringing.

With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of teaching practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena.
According to V.V. Kraevsky, only the third concept is productive for science and practice, according to which pedagogy is a relatively independent discipline that has its own object and subject of study.

Object of pedagogy

A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is the “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.
Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy

Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. For example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question about the goals and general purpose of education - what are they today and what should they be in the modern world? A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.
Subject of pedagogy- this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of a teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.
Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it implements in organic unity.
The theoretical function of pedagogy is implemented at three levels:
descriptive or explanatory- study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;
diagnostic- identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;
prognostic- experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.
The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.
The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:
projective, associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky) plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;
Model - sample (standard, standard).
transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;
reflective and corrective, which involves assessing the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.

Education as a social phenomenon

Any society exists only on the condition that its members follow its accepted values ​​and norms of behavior, determined by specific natural and socio-historical conditions. A person becomes a person in the process socialization, thanks to which he gains the ability to perform social functions. Some scientists understand socialization as a lifelong process, linking it with a change in place of residence and group, and with marital status, and with the advent of old age. Such socialization is nothing more than social adaptation. However, socialization does not end there. It involves development, self-determination, and self-realization of the individual. Moreover, such problems are solved both spontaneously and purposefully, by the entire society, by institutions specially created for this purpose, and by the individual himself. This purposefully organized process of managing socialization is called education, which is a complex socio-historical phenomenon with many sides and aspects, the study of which, as already noted, is carried out by a number of sciences.
The concept of "education" (similar to the German "bildung") comes from the word "image". Education is understood as a unified process of physical and spiritual formation of a personality, a process of socialization, consciously oriented towards some ideal images, towards historically determined social standards, more or less clearly fixed in the public consciousness (for example, a Spartan warrior, a virtuous Christian, an energetic entrepreneur, a harmoniously developed personality ). In this understanding, education acts as an integral aspect of the life of all societies and all individuals without exception. Therefore, it is first of all a social phenomenon.
Education has become a special sphere of social life from the time when the process of transferring knowledge and social experience stood out from other types of life activity of society and became the work of persons specially engaged in training and education. However, education as a social way of ensuring the inheritance of culture, socialization and personal development arose along with the advent of society and developed along with the development of labor activity, thinking, and language.
Scientists studying the socialization of children at the stage of primitive society believe that education in that era was woven into the system of social and production activities. The functions of training and education, the transfer of culture from generation to generation were carried out by all adults directly in the course of introducing children to labor and social work. responsibilities.
Every adult member of society became a teacher in the process of everyday life, and in some developed communities, for example among the Yaguas (Colombia, Peru), younger children were raised mainly by older children. In any case, education was inseparable from the life of society and was included in it as a mandatory component. Children, together with adults, obtained food, guarded the hearth, made tools and learned at the same time. Women gave girls lessons in housekeeping and child care, men taught boys to hunt and wield weapons. Together with adults, children, taming animals, growing plants and observing the movement of clouds and celestial bodies, comprehended the secrets of nature, rejoiced at a successful hunt, military victories, danced and sang, experienced misfortunes, hunger, defeats and the death of their fellow tribesmen. Education was therefore carried out comprehensively and continuously in the process of life itself.
Expanding the boundaries of communication, the development of language and general culture have led to an increase in information and experience to be transmitted to young people. However, the possibilities for its development were limited. This contradiction was resolved by creating public structures or social institutions that specialized in the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge.
For example, in order to preserve in memory all the richness of folklore, the priests of the Tohunga (Maori tribes of New Zealand) practiced for hours every day in the endless repetition of myths, genealogies, and traditions. In each tribe, special schools were created - “vare vananga” (houses of knowledge), in which the most knowledgeable people passed on the knowledge and experience of the tribe to the young people, introduced them to rituals and legends, and initiated them into the art of black magic and witchcraft. The young men spent many months at school, memorizing the spiritual heritage word for word. In wara vananga, young people were taught various crafts, agricultural practices, were introduced to the lunar calendar, and were taught to determine favorable dates for the start and completion of agricultural work by the stars. The full course of study at such a school took several years. Schools of this type existed not only among the Maori, but also among other tribes. The spread of such schools significantly accelerated the progress of mankind, made society more mobile and adapted to environmental changes.
The emergence of private property and the identification of the family as an economic community of people led to the isolation of teaching and educational functions and the transition from public education to family education, when the role of teacher began to be played not by the community, but by parents. The main goal of education was to raise a good owner, an heir capable of preserving and increasing the property accumulated by the parents as the basis of family well-being.
However, the thinkers of antiquity already realized that the material well-being of individual citizens and families depended on the power of the state. The latter can be achieved not by family, but by public forms of education. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, for example, considered it obligatory for children of the ruling class to receive education in special government institutions. His views reflected the educational system that developed in ancient Sparta. State control over upbringing began from the first days of a child’s life. From the age of seven, boys were sent to boarding schools, where a harsh way of life was established. The main goal of education was to raise strong, resilient, disciplined and skillful warriors capable of selflessly defending the interests of slave owners. A similar education system existed in ancient Athens.
It should be noted that the strength of Sparta and Athens was largely due to the educational systems that developed in them, which ensured a high level of culture of the population. The existence, along with the family, of state, temple and other forms of education was characteristic of many slave-owning societies.
The driving force behind the development of education during this period was its internal contradictions. The invention of writing and mathematical symbols not only revolutionized the methods of accumulation, storage and transmission of information, but also radically changed the content of education and teaching methods. Mastering the educational material required daily special classes for a number of years. To organize the exercise, people were needed who were prepared for this. Thus, there was a separation from the single process of reproduction of social life of spiritual reproduction - education, carried out through training and education in institutions adapted for these purposes. This also meant a transition from non-institutional to institutional socialization.
Large schools existed already in the 3rd century. BC, for example, in Mesopotamia and Egypt. In them, each teacher taught his own subject: one - writing, another - mathematics, a third - religion and mythology, a fourth - dancing and music, a fifth - gymnastics, etc.
The Middle Ages in Western and Central Europe are characterized by the establishment of Christian religious ideology. Therefore, schools, as a rule, were opened and maintained by the church, taught by monks and priests. Their main goal was to spread religion and strengthen the influence of the church in society. In the largest schools, along with teaching reading, writing, counting, singing, and Latin, they studied geometry, astronomy, music, and rhetoric. Such schools trained not only church ministers, but also educated people for secular activities.
The increasing complexity of social life and the state mechanism required more and more educated people. City schools, which were independent of the church, began to train them. In the XII - XIII centuries. Universities appeared in Europe, quite autonomous in relation to feudal lords, the church and city magistrates. They trained doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, notaries, secretaries and government officials.
Increased social needs for educated people led to the abandonment of individual education and the transition to a class-lesson system in schools and a lecture-seminar system in universities. The use of these systems ensured organizational clarity and orderliness of the educational process and made it possible to transmit information simultaneously to tens and hundreds of people. This has increased the effectiveness of education tenfold, and it has become much more accessible to the majority of the population.
The development of education in the pre-capitalist era was determined by the needs of trade, navigation, and industry, but until relatively recently it did not have a significant impact on production and the economy. Many progressive thinkers saw only humanistic, educational value in education. The situation began to change as the large machine industry demanded a change in the old mode of production, thinking patterns and value systems. The development of mathematics, natural science, medicine, geography, astronomy and navigation, engineering, the need for the widespread use of scientific knowledge came into conflict with the traditional, predominantly humanitarian, content of education, the center of which was the study of ancient languages. The resolution of this contradiction is associated with the emergence of real colleges and technical schools, higher technical educational institutions.
Objective demands of production and the struggle of workers for the democratization of education already in the 19th century. led to the adoption of laws on compulsory primary education in the most developed countries.
Before the Second World War, to successfully master working professions, secondary education was required. This was manifested in an increase in the length of compulsory schooling, the expansion of school programs to include natural sciences, and the abolition of fees for primary and secondary school education in a number of countries. Incomplete and then complete secondary education becomes the main condition for the reproduction of the labor force.
Second half of the 20th century characterized by unprecedented coverage of children, youth and adults in various forms of education. This is the period of the so-called educational explosion. This became possible because automatic machines, replacing mechanical machines, changed the position of man in the production process. Life has raised the question of a new type of worker, who harmoniously combines in his production activities the functions of mental and physical, managerial and executive labor, constantly improving technology and organizational and economic relations. Education has become a necessary condition for the reproduction of the labor force. A person who does not have educational training today is virtually deprived of the opportunity to obtain a modern profession.
Thus, the separation of education into a specific branch of spiritual production, therefore, met historical conditions and had progressive significance.
Education as a social phenomenon is, first of all, an objective social value. The moral, intellectual, scientific, technical, spiritual, cultural and economic potential of any society directly depends on the level of development of the educational sphere. However, education, having a social nature and historical character, in turn, is determined by the historical type of society that implements this social function. It reflects the tasks of social development, the level of economy and culture in society, the nature of its political and ideological attitudes, since both teachers and students are subjects of social relations.
So, education is like. a social phenomenon is a relatively independent system, the function of which is the training and education of members of society, focused on mastering certain knowledge (primarily scientific), ideological and moral values, abilities, skills, norms of behavior, the content of which is ultimately determined by socio-economic and the political system of a given society and the level of its material and technical development.

Education as a pedagogical process.
Conceptual apparatus of pedagogy

The formation of any field of scientific knowledge is associated with the development of concepts, which, on the one hand, indicate a certain class of essentially unified phenomena, and on the other, construct the subject of this science. In the conceptual apparatus of a particular science, one can single out one central concept that denotes the entire field under study and distinguishes it from the subject areas of other sciences. The remaining concepts of the apparatus of a particular science, in turn, reflect the differentiation of the original, core concept.
For pedagogy, the role of such a core concept is played by the “pedagogical process.” It, on the one hand, denotes the entire complex of phenomena that are studied by pedagogy, and on the other hand, it expresses the essence of these phenomena. Analysis of the concept of “pedagogical process” therefore reveals the essential features of the phenomena of education as a pedagogical process, in contrast to other related phenomena.
In its first approximation to the definition, the pedagogical process is a movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of teaching and upbringing. The essential characteristic of the pedagogical process is therefore integrity as the internal unity of its components, their relative autonomy.
The pedagogical process as an integrity can be considered from the standpoint of a systems approach, which allows us to see in it, first of all, a pedagogical system (Yu. K. Babansky). In pedagogical literature and educational practice, the concept of “system” is often used without regard to its real, true content. Often this concept is personified (for example, Makarenko’s system, Sukhomlinsky’s system, etc.), sometimes correlated with one or another level of education (system of preschool, school, vocational, higher education, etc.) or even with educational activities specific educational institution. However, the concept of “pedagogical system” goes beyond the narrowly understood personalization (B. G. Gershunsky). The fact is that, with all the originality, uniqueness and multiplicity of pedagogical systems, they obey the general law of the organizational structure and functioning of the system as a process.
In this regard, the pedagogical system must be understood as a multitude of interconnected structural components, united by a single educational goal of personal development and functioning in an integral pedagogical process. The structural components of the pedagogical system are basically adequate to the components of the pedagogical process, also considered as a system.
The pedagogical process from this point of view is a specially organized interaction between teachers and pupils (pedagogical interaction) regarding the content of education using teaching and educational means (pedagogical means) in order to solve educational problems aimed both at meeting the needs of society and the individual himself in its development and self-development.
Any process is a sequential change from one state to another. In the pedagogical process, it is the result of pedagogical interaction. That is why pedagogical interaction is an essential characteristic of the pedagogical process. It, unlike any other interaction, is an intentional contact (long-term or temporary) between a teacher and students, the consequence of which is mutual changes in their behavior, activities and relationships.
Pedagogical interaction includes in unity the pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the student and the latter’s own activity, manifested in reciprocal direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). The concept of “pedagogical interaction” is therefore broader than “pedagogical influence”, “pedagogical influence” and even “pedagogical attitude”, which is a consequence of the interaction between teachers and students (Yu. K. Babansky).
This understanding of pedagogical interaction allows us to identify two most important components in the structure of both the pedagogical process and the pedagogical system - teachers and students, who are the most active elements. The activity of participants in pedagogical interaction allows us to talk about them as subjects of the pedagogical process, influencing its progress and results.
This approach contradicts the traditional understanding of the pedagogical process as a specially organized, purposeful, consistent, systematic and comprehensive influence on the student with the aim of forming a personality with given qualities. The traditional approach identifies the pedagogical process with the activity of a teacher, pedagogical activity - a special type of social (professional) activity aimed at realizing the goals of education: transferring from older generations to younger generations the culture and experience accumulated by humanity, creating conditions for their personal development and preparation for fulfilling certain social roles in society. This approach consolidates subject-object relationships in the pedagogical process.
It seems that the traditional approach is a consequence of the uncritical, and therefore mechanistic, transfer into pedagogy of the main postulate of management theory: if there is a subject of management, then there must also be an object. As a result, in pedagogy, the subject is the teacher, and the object, naturally, is considered to be a child, a schoolchild, or even an adult studying under someone’s guidance. The idea of ​​the pedagogical process as a subject-object relationship was consolidated as a result of the establishment of authoritarianism as a social phenomenon in the education system. But if the student is an object, then not the pedagogical process, but only pedagogical influences, i.e. external activities directed at him. By recognizing the student as a subject of the pedagogical process, humanistic pedagogy thereby affirms the priority of subject-subject relations in its structure.
The pedagogical process is carried out in specially organized conditions, which are associated primarily with the content and technology of pedagogical interaction. Thus, two more components of the pedagogical process and system are distinguished: the content of education and the means of education (material, technical and pedagogical - forms, methods, techniques).
The interrelations of such components of the system as teachers and students, the content of education and its means, give rise to the real pedagogical process as a dynamic system. They are necessary and sufficient for the emergence of any pedagogical system.
The determinant of the emergence of pedagogical systems is the goal of education as a set of requirements of society in the sphere of spiritual reproduction, as a social order.
Determinant - prerequisite,
In the content of education, it is interpreted pedagogically in connection with, for example, the age of the students, the level of their personal development, the development of the team, etc.
Thus, the goal, being an expression of the order of society and interpreted in pedagogical terms, acts as a system-forming factor, and not an element of the pedagogical system, i.e. external force in relation to it. The pedagogical system is created with a goal orientation. The ways (mechanisms) of functioning of the pedagogical system in the pedagogical process are training and education. The internal changes that occur both in the pedagogical system itself and in its subjects - teachers and students - depend on their pedagogical instrumentation.
Education is a specially organized activity of teachers and students to realize the goals of education in the conditions of the pedagogical process. Training is a specific method of education aimed at personal development through organizing students’ acquisition of scientific knowledge and methods of activity. Being an integral part of education, teaching differs from it in the degree of regulation of the pedagogical process by normative requirements of both content and organizational and technical terms. For example, the state standard (level) of educational content must be implemented in the learning process. Training is also limited by time frame (academic year, lesson, etc.), requires certain technical and visual teaching aids, electronic and verbal-sign media (textbooks, computers, etc.).
Education and training as ways of implementing the pedagogical process are thus characterized by educational technologies (or pedagogical technologies), in which expedient and optimal steps, stages, stages of achieving the stated goals of education are recorded. Pedagogical technology is a consistent, interdependent system of actions of a teacher associated with the use of one or another set of methods of education and training and carried out (in the pedagogical process in order to solve various pedagogical problems: structuring and specifying the goals of the pedagogical process; transforming the content of education and educational material; analyzing interdisciplinary and intra-subject connections; choice of methods, means and organizational forms of the pedagogical process, etc.
It is the pedagogical task that is the unit of the pedagogical process, for the solution of which pedagogical interaction is organized at each specific stage. Pedagogical activity within the framework of any pedagogical system can therefore be presented as an interconnected sequence of solving countless problems of varying levels of complexity, which inevitably includes students in interaction with teachers. A pedagogical task is a materialized situation of upbringing and teaching (pedagogical situation), characterized by the interaction of teachers and students with a specific goal. Thus, the “moments” of the pedagogical process can be traced from the joint solution of one problem to another.
Education and training determine the qualitative characteristics of education - the results of the pedagogical process, reflecting the degree of realization of the goals of education. In turn, the results of education as a pedagogical process are related to future-oriented strategies for the development of education.

The connection between pedagogy and other sciences and its structure

The place of pedagogy in the system of human sciences can be revealed in the process of considering its connections with other sciences. Throughout the entire period of its existence, it was closely connected with many sciences, which had an ambiguous influence on its formation and development. Some of these relationships arose a long time ago, even at the stages of identifying and formalizing pedagogy as a science, others are more recent formations. Among the first, connections between pedagogy and philosophy and psychology were formed, which today are a necessary condition for the development of pedagogical theory and practice.
The connection between pedagogy and philosophy is the most long-lasting and productive, since philosophical ideas produced the creation of pedagogical concepts and theories, set the perspective of pedagogical search and served as its methodological basis.
Interpretations of the connections between philosophy and pedagogy were of a rather rigid oppositional nature. On the one hand, pedagogy was considered a “testing ground” for the application and testing of philosophical ideas. In this case, it was considered as a practical philosophy. On the other hand, attempts have been made repeatedly to abandon philosophy in pedagogy.
Today, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to pedagogy is generally recognized, which is completely legitimate and is determined by the very essence of philosophical knowledge, ideological in nature and corresponding to the tasks being solved in understanding the place of man in the world. The direction of pedagogical search and the determination of the essential, target and technological characteristics of the educational process depend on the system of philosophical views (existential, pragmatic, neo-positivist, materialistic, etc.) that pedagogy researchers adhere to.
In addition, the methodological function of philosophy in relation to any science, including pedagogy, is manifested in the fact that it develops a system of general principles and methods of scientific knowledge. The process of obtaining pedagogical knowledge is subject to the general laws of scientific knowledge studied by philosophy.
Philosophy is also a theoretical platform for understanding pedagogical experience and creating pedagogical concepts.
The connection between pedagogy and psychology is the most traditional. The demands to understand the properties of human nature, its natural needs and capabilities, to take into account the mechanisms, laws of mental activity and personality development, to build education (training and upbringing), in accordance with these laws, properties, needs, capabilities, were put forward by all outstanding teachers.
However, when analyzing the connections between pedagogy and psychology, it is important to distinguish between psychologism as a methodological position and psychology as a science, which was and remains the most important source of scientific substantiation of the educational process (V. V. Kraevsky). Psychologism is manifested in the fact that psychology is declared the only scientific basis guiding pedagogical practice. However, as V.V. Davydov notes, although psychology should be taken into account, it is “not a dictator,” since the lives of teachers and children are determined by social and pedagogical conditions that determine the psychological patterns of personality development. These patterns are of a specific historical nature, and therefore, when social and pedagogical conditions change, the patterns of personality development also change. The connections between pedagogy and other sciences are not limited to philosophy and psychology, the common point of which is the study of man as an individual. Pedagogy is closely connected with the sciences that study him as an individual. These are sciences such as biology (human anatomy and physiology), anthropology and medicine.
The problem of the relationship between natural and social factors of human development is one of the central ones for pedagogy. It is also the most important for biology, which studies individual human development.
Pedagogy, considering man as a natural and social being, could not help but use the potential that accumulated in anthropology as a science that integrates knowledge about the human phenomenon into a single theoretical construct that considers the nature of a conventional man in his multidimensionality and diversity.
Anthropology is a science that comprehensively studies the biological nature of man.
The connection between pedagogy and medicine led to the emergence of correctional pedagogy as a special branch of pedagogical knowledge, the subject of which is the education of children with acquired or congenital developmental disabilities. It develops, in conjunction with medicine, a system of means by which a therapeutic effect is achieved and socialization processes are facilitated, compensating for existing defects.
The development of pedagogy is also associated with the sciences that study man in society, in the system of his social connections and relationships. Therefore, it is no coincidence that fairly stable interactions began to be established between pedagogy, sociology, economics, political science and other social sciences.
The relationship between pedagogy and economic sciences is complex and ambiguous. Economic policy has at all times been a necessary condition for the development of an educated society. Economic stimulation of scientific research in this field of knowledge remains an important factor in the development of pedagogy. The connection of these sciences served to isolate such a branch of knowledge as the economics of education, the subject of which is the specifics of the operation of economic laws in the field of education.
The connections between pedagogy and sociology are also traditional, since both the first and second are concerned with planning education, identifying the main trends in the development of certain groups or segments of the population, the patterns of socialization and education of the individual in various social institutions.
The connection between pedagogy and political science is due to the fact that educational policy has always been a reflection of the ideology of the ruling parties and classes. Pedagogy seeks to identify the conditions and mechanisms of a person’s formation as a subject of political consciousness, the possibility of assimilating political ideas and attitudes.
An analysis of the connections between pedagogy and other sciences allows us to identify the following forms (R. G. Gurova):
the use by pedagogy of basic ideas, theoretical provisions, generalizing the conclusions of other sciences;
creative borrowing of research methods used in these sciences;
application in pedagogy of specific research results obtained in psychology, physiology of higher nervous activity, sociology and other sciences;
participation of pedagogy in complex human research.
The development of connections between pedagogy and other sciences leads to the identification of new branches of pedagogy - borderline scientific disciplines. Today, pedagogy is a complex system of pedagogical sciences. Its structure includes:
general pedagogy, exploring the basic patterns of education;
age-related pedagogy- preschool, school pedagogy, adult pedagogy, studying age-related aspects of education and upbringing;
correctional pedagogy- deaf pedagogy (training and education of the deaf and hard of hearing), typhlopedagogy (training and education of the blind and visually impaired), oligophrenopedagogy (training and education of the mentally retarded and children with mental retardation), speech therapy (education and education of children with speech impairments);
private methods- subject didactics, exploring the specifics of applying general principles of learning to the teaching of individual subjects;
history of pedagogy and education, which studies the development of pedagogical ideas and educational practices in various historical eras;

industrial pedagogy(military, sports, higher education, industrial, etc.).

The process of differentiation in pedagogical science continues. In recent years, such branches as philosophy of education, comparative pedagogy, social pedagogy, etc. have made themselves known.

(7 votes: 5.0 out of 5)
  • prot. Evgeny Shestun
  • I. Medvedeva, T. Shishova
  • N.V. Maslov
  • prot. Boris Nichiporov
  • prof. V.V. Zenkovsky

Pedagogy- the science of the content, goals, models and methods of upbringing, training and education; the science of purposeful activities for the formation of human personality.

The main meaning and task of Orthodox pedagogy, according to the statements of Rev. , is to bring the younger generation closer to, teach authentic life in, help in liberation from the power of sin, through the grace-filled replenishment of gifts, and contribute to the revelation and spiritualization of the image of God in them.

In ancient Greek teacher was the name of a slave who brings his master's son to school to see a teacher. The New Testament understanding, based on this semantic symbol, understands a servant of the Master as a teacher who believes in the Lord. The school of life is, and that mysterious thing is Christ himself.

As K.D. once wrote. Ushinsky: “Pedagogy without Christ is unthinkable - without foundations behind and without prospects ahead.”

How does Christian pedagogy differ from pedagogy in general?

Strictly speaking, pedagogy implies the possibility of various approaches and forms of educating a person as an individual, depending on certain conditions and circumstances.

Meanwhile, Christian pedagogy differs from any other pedagogical trends fundamentally and essentially.

First of all, this difference is seen in the fact that the most important principles of Christian pedagogy are based not on ideas formulated by such and such a scientist, even a recognized, famous, even brilliant one, but on the norms and requirements revealed to man by God Himself. In this regard, Christ is recognized as our Teacher ().

Of course, Christian pedagogy does not exclude the possibility of using the experience of secular pedagogy, all the best that is used in pedagogy in general. But here, when determining what is best and what is not, the main criterion is, again, .

Secular pedagogy is based on those moral values ​​accepted in a particular society and subjectively revered as such. Christian pedagogy is based on valid moral principles designated by God.

Both Christian and secular pedagogy set the main task of personality formation. And, it would seem, one can see similarities in this. Meanwhile, with a thorough study of the question of what exactly is meant by the formation of personality, the positions of followers of secular and Christian pedagogy can diverge to extremes.

Suppose, within the framework of secular pedagogy, the formation of personality can mean the formation (in the ward) of such personal qualities as self-confidence, self-confidence; love and respect for one's own person. Everything would be fine, but often these seemingly natural traits hide: proud self-confidence, pride, vanity, selfishness.

Christian pedagogy, by the formation of personality, means, first of all, the revelation of traits, acquisition and multiplication, assimilation to God. This is the meaning of Christian education.

The task of secular pedagogy is to prepare a person for life in earthly society, to make him a worthy citizen of his country or the world.

The task of Christian pedagogy is to prepare a person not only for earthly life in society, but also for an eternal blissful life in the Lord; to help him (through the Divine) become a citizen of the Heavenly Fatherland, an heir to the Kingdom of Saints.

Personality formation refers to the process of human development, both depending on targeted influences and various environmental influences. In modern foreign pedagogy, the first influence on a person is often designated by the term “intentional education”, the second - “functional education”.

Pedagogical technology is a set of forms, methods, methods, techniques of educational and educational means, systematically used in the educational process, on the basis of declared pedagogical psychological and pedagogical guidelines.


2. Education

Education is the process and result of mastering a system of knowledge, developing skills and abilities, which ultimately ensures a certain level of development of a person’s cognitive needs and abilities and his preparation for one or another type of practical activity. There are general and special education. General education provides each person with the knowledge, skills and abilities that are necessary for all-round development and are the basis for further special education aimed at preparing for professional activity. In terms of the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary or higher. An integral part of general education is polytechnic education.


3. Training

The most important means of education and upbringing is training - the process of transferring and actively assimilating knowledge, abilities and skills, as well as methods of cognitive activity necessary for the implementation of lifelong human education. The learning process is two-way, including both related parts of the whole: teaching - the activity of the teacher in transferring knowledge and guiding the independent work of students and the activity of students in actively mastering the system of knowledge, skills and abilities - training. Pedagogy is part of the system of sciences that study man, human society, the conditions of its existence (philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, psychology, political economy, sociology, history, anatomy, physiology, medicine, etc.), and uses their theoretical principles, research methods (in particular mathematical statistics and cybernetics), as well as the results of specific studies.


4. The structure of pedagogy and the system of pedagogical disciplines

In pedagogy, there are a number of relatively independent sections related to the study of individual aspects of the educational process. Didactics (theory of education and training) deals with the development of goals, objectives, content, principles, methods and organization of education and training; questions of the formation of moral qualities of an individual, political convictions, aesthetic tastes, organization of various activities of students form the subject of theory and methods of education. School studies studies the totality of all organizational and pedagogical problems related to the management of public education, the network and structure of educational institutions and the management of their activities.

In order to concretize research work in the field of pedagogy and in-depth professional study of pedagogy as an educational subject, there is a need to highlight the specific features of the education and training of certain age or professionally oriented groups of the population (preschool children, students of secondary schools, vocational schools, secondary special or higher educational institutions, military personnel, etc.). In this case, we conventionally speak of P. preschool, school, university, etc. and consider the issues of organization and methods of education and training of this contingent of students, taking into account the specific manifestation of pedagogical patterns in these conditions.

Pedagogy itself includes methods of teaching individual academic disciplines studied in educational institutions of various types; defectology, which studies the psychophysiological features of the development of abnormal children, the patterns of their upbringing, education and training (with the highlighting of highly specialized branches: theory and methods of upbringing, education and training of deaf and hard of hearing children - deaf pedagogy; blind and weakly disabled - typhlopedagogy; with mental retardation - oligophrenopedagogy, with speech disorders - speech therapy), history of pedagogy, studying the development of the theory and practice of upbringing, education and training in various historical eras.


5. Main stages in the development of pedagogy as a science

The first attempts to understand the practice of education taking into account the needs of society date back to the heyday of slave states in Mediterranean countries. Statements about the goals, objectives, content and means of education (of course, only for freeborns) occupied a prominent place in the works of Democritus, Plato, Aristotle and other ancient Greek philosophers. These statements were not independent pedagogical theories, but were components of philosophical systems or projects for organizing society. For the further development of pedagogical thought, the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers about the support of education on the principles of ethics and psychology, about the unity of mental, moral and physical education, about the age-based periodization of human development, etc., were of great importance. In Ancient Rome, a special interest arose in the problems of organization, content and teaching methods in rhetoric schools. Quintilian’s book “On the Education of an Orator” appeared, in fact, as the first special work that summarized teaching experience, formulated requirements for teachers and educators, and contained instructions on the need to take into account the individual characteristics of children.

The pedagogical views of European peoples in the Middle Ages were strongly influenced by Christianity, which became the dominant religion of feudal society in Europe: all views on education developed exclusively within the framework of Christian theology. A similar situation existed in other regions of the globe, where other religious ideologies (Islam, Buddhism) dominated.

The desire to liberate human thought from religious dogmas, the revival of interest in man himself in his daily activities, characteristic of the era of the disintegration of feudal society and the emergence of capitalist social relations (14-16 centuries), was also reflected in pedagogical beliefs. In works of different genres by Renaissance humanists (T. More, T. Campanella, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Francois Rabelais, Michel Montaigne and others), ideas were put forward for the comprehensive and harmonious development of human spiritual and physical powers, secular education based on the assimilation of the cultural heritage of the ancient world and achievements of scientific knowledge developed rapidly during that period.

The history of pedagogy as a holistic theory of human education begins with the era of the first bourgeois revolutions in Europe and is associated with the name of the Czech thinker J. A. Kamensky, who, having generalized and theoretically comprehended the practice of European education, created a coherent pedagogical system. Kamensky's "Great Didactics" examines the main problems of teaching and upbringing. Kamensky turned out to be the founder of the classroom-based teaching system. Comenius' pedagogical theory was an organic part of his broad socio-political concept, set out in the major work "General Council on the Correction of Human Affairs", one of the parts of which ("Pampedia") is entirely devoted to pedagogical issues. In particular, it was the first to formulate and disclose the idea of ​​continuous education and upbringing of a person throughout life, set out the requirements for the preparation of books as the main tool of education, etc.

Starting from the era of the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century, two main trends can be distinguished in the development of pedagogical thought: on the one hand, the feudal clerical concept of education continued to maintain a dominant position, on the other hand, a new, bourgeois interpretation of education began to take shape as a means of forming an active person, preparing her for life's struggle for one's own well-being. The new ideals of education received a vivid expression in the works of the English philosopher-educator John Locke, who highlighted the problems of moral and physical education and the utilitarian approach, which was the founder, to education and training. Locke's struggle against the theory of innate ideas was important.

In the 18th century, the theoretical development of educational issues was carried out mainly within the framework of the Enlightenment. Based on Locke's teaching about the natural equality of people, advanced French thinkers (C. A. Helvetius, D. Diderot, Rousseau, etc.) developed the position about the decisive role of upbringing and environment in the formation of personality. Diderot, in particular, considered the development of human individuality to be one of the main tasks of education. French materialists substantiated and popularized the idea of ​​real education, which was supposed to supplant the so-called scholastic education. The greatest contribution to the development of pedagogical thought in the 18th century was made by J. J. Rousseau, who was the founder of the concept of natural, free education. Rousseau made an attempt to outline the tasks, content and methods of raising and teaching children, based on the characteristics of their physical and spiritual development at different age stages, and put forward a demand to intensify teaching methods. The influence of Rousseau's ideas can be traced in the democratic projects of public education reform in France during the revolution of 1789-1793, in the activities of German philanthropists (I. B. Basedov, H. R. Salzman, I. G. Kampe, etc.), who created original pedagogical boarding-type institutions and essentially laid the foundation for the theoretical development of Pedagogy.

Pedagogical thought in the 18th and 19th centuries was influenced by a number of provisions of German classical philosophy (I. Kant, J. G. Fichte, G. W. F. Hegel). In the development of pedagogical issues proper, an important stage was the activity of the Swiss democratic teacher I. G. Pestalozzi, who tried to build a theory of upbringing and teaching on the basis of psychological data. Pestalozzi's experience and opinions regarding the development of a child in the process of education and upbringing, issues of labor training, methods of initial teaching of reading, writing, counting, geography, etc., were the stimulus for the development of the science of education in the 1st half of the 19th century. Pestalozzi was the first public school theorist.

The development of theoretical problems of Soviet pedagogy related to the clarification of relationships with other sciences, the definition of its subject, tasks and methods, etc., necessitated a critical revision of the pedagogical concepts and theories of the past.

Already in the 20s, the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR created research institutes in Moscow for methods of school work (1922), methods of extracurricular work (1923), scientific pedagogy at the 2nd Moscow State University (1926), and in Leningrad - the Institute of Scientific Pedagogy (1924) . In 1931, the Institute of Polytechnic Education was founded in Moscow (in 1937 it was transformed into the Institute of Secondary School). In 1938, all pedagogical research institutes were united into the Institute of Schools of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. In the 2nd half of the 20s, pedagogical research institutions were opened in Ukraine (1926), Belarus (1928), Georgia (1929), Azerbaijan (1931), and in the 40-50s - in other allied countries republics In 1943, with the aim of consolidating research work in the field of pedagogy, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR was established, which was transformed in 1966 into the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR.

The formation and development of Soviet pedagogy is associated with the names of such famous teachers as P. P. Blonsky, A. P. Pinkevich, B. P. Esipov, M. A. Danilov, Sh. I. Ganelin, L. V. Zankov, M. N. Skatkin, I. T. Ogorodnikov, S. G. Shapovalenko (didactics), V. A. Sukhomlinsky, I. F. Svadkovsky, I. A. Kairov, N. K. Goncharov, E. I. Monoszon, N. I. Boldyrev (theory and methods of education), N. A. Konstantinov, E. N. Medynsky, V. Z. Smirnov, F. F. Korolev. D. O. Lordkipanidze, I. K. Kadyrov, M. M. Mehty-zade, A. A. Kurbanov, S. Kh. Chavdarov, A. E. Izmailov, S. R. Radzhabov (history of pedagogy), etc. During the years of Soviet power, scientific editions of the pedagogical works of many outstanding thinkers of the past who contributed to the creation of the foundation of pedagogical science (Comenius, Disterweg, Locke, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Fourier, Owen, Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev, Ushinsky, Lesgaft) were prepared. and etc..). At the same time, the main trends in pedagogy of the era of imperialism (new education, labor school, pragmatism, experimental pedagogy, etc.) were subjected to critical analysis.

The generalization and systematization of the achievements of Soviet pedagogy was facilitated by the preparation of textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and history, as well as the preparation of reference and encyclopedic publications ("Pedagogical Encyclopedia", vol. 1-3, 1927-29, "Pedagogical Dictionary", vol. 1-2 , 1960; "Pedagogical Encyclopedia", vol. 1-4, 1964-68).

Finding optimal ways to form a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality, spiritually rich, highly moral, physically perfect, is the main direction of modern research in Marxist pedagogical science. Pedagogy substantiates the ways of developing the content of education, bringing it into line with the needs of the socialist economy, culture and science. The era of the scientific and technological revolution is characterized by a rapid increase in knowledge in all fields of science, which causes an expansion in the volume of scientific education that the school should provide on occasion, almost does not change, itself and the students (length of study, length of the school day, physical strength and fatigue of students etc.). Pedagogy is developing new principles and criteria for selecting the content of general education: problems of consolidating units of acquisition, generalizing knowledge regarding the needs of general education, strengthening its systematic and theoretical nature, consistent implementation of the principle of polytechnization as one of the leading criteria for selecting scientific material to be studied at school, etc. ..

The direction of research in the field of organization of educational work is associated with the search for ways to activate students, develop their independence and initiative in the process of acquiring knowledge. In this regard, research is being conducted with the goal of modernizing the classical form of the lesson by introducing into its structure various types of group and individual work of students while maintaining the leading role of the teacher, as well as research aimed at improving the means and methods of teaching for the maximum development of students' cognitive interests and abilities, developing their skills in rational organization of work. The most important area of ​​research in pedagogy is the development of issues related to the ideological, political and moral education of young people, with the formation of a communist worldview in them (the content and patterns of the process of formation of communist views and beliefs, effective pedagogical means that ensure the development of unity of communist consciousness and behavior among young people) . Further progress in pedagogy as a science largely depends on the development of theoretical problems associated with clarifying its subject, categories, terminology, improving research methods and strengthening connections with other sciences.

Pedagogical research devoted to the history of individual pedagogical problems and their solutions, the genesis of various pedagogical concepts, theories, methods, concepts, etc. is also of great relevance. This approach turns the history of pedagogy into the real history of the science of education, adds predictive significance to historical and pedagogical research .

In other socialist countries, great attention is also paid to the development of pedagogical problems; Pedagogical research institutes were created (in the GDR - the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences). In European socialist countries, a generation of Marxist teachers has formed who make a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of communist education (R. Neuner, K. H. Gunter, E. Drefenstedt, H. Stolz, G. Frankevich, etc. - GDR; M. Cipro, B. Kuyal, S. Marzhan, E. Strachar, R. Pavlovich, O. Pavlik, L. Bakos and others - Czechoslovakia; V. Okon, I. Kupisiewicz, K. Sosnitsky and others - Poland; N. Chakarov, D. Tsvetkov, Zh. Atanasov and others - Bulgaria, I. Sarka, S. Nagy, E. Feld and others - Hungary, etc.).


(Russian)

8. Attempts to reconstruct Proto-Slavic pedagogical ideas

At the beginning of the 21st century, a number of publications appeared exploring Proto-Slavic pedagogical ideas. Considering the closeness of this topic during the Soviet era, these works are still few in number and require further in-depth research. O. Luk Lukyanenko introduced the concept of Rodocentric pedagogy as a pedagogical system of ancient (Vedic) Rus'.

See also

  • Literature

Lukyanenko A.V. Rodocentric pedagogy: historical and theoretical studies

Supervising a child, responsible for his attendance at school (often incapable of physical labor). The development of pedagogy is inseparable from the history of mankind. Pedagogical thought originated and developed over thousands of years in ancient Greek, ancient Eastern and medieval theology and philosophy. For the first time, pedagogy was isolated from the system of philosophical knowledge at the beginning of the 17th century. by the English philosopher and naturalist Francis Bacon and consolidated as a science through the works of the Czech educator Jan Amos Comenius. To date, pedagogy is a multidisciplinary science, functioning and developing in close connection with other sciences.

Other definitions

Pedagogical sciences explore questions about the object and subject of pedagogy, social, cognitive, ideological and practical problems and methods for solving them; on the relationship between pedagogy as theory and pedagogy as practice (B. M. Bim-Bad).

Pedagogy is the only special science of education among the sciences that study educational activities (V.V. Kraevsky, A.V. Khutorskoy).

Pedagogy is one of the social sciences that studies the process of human upbringing, that is, its subject is education: how a child develops in the course of his communication and interaction with social groups (family, educational, educational, industrial, street communities, etc.) (educates) a personality - a social being, consciously and responsibly relating to the world around him, transforming this world (starting first of all with himself and his example). This process proceeds according to its inherent laws, that is, stable, inevitable connections between individual parts are manifested in it, certain changes entail corresponding results. These patterns are identified and studied by pedagogy. One of the practical directions of modern pedagogy is non-formal education.

Methodology of pedagogy- a system of knowledge about the foundations and structure of pedagogical theory, about the principles of approach and methods of obtaining knowledge that reflect pedagogical reality, as well as a system of activities for obtaining such knowledge and justifying programs, logic and methods, assessing the quality of research work.

Object and subject of pedagogy

Pedagogy as its object it has a system of pedagogical phenomena related to the development of the individual.

2. Identification of the composition and magnitude of natural(i.e. not amenable to change by pedagogical means) talents(abilities) And closely related to them needs given person, which largely determine the possibilities for his training in one direction or another.

3. Identifying the composition and magnitude of social needs to training and education in a given place and at a given time. At the same time, the concept of place and time also has a rather complex (hierarchical) nature.

4. Establishment and implementation harmonious satisfying personal and social needs in education and training taking into account the needs and capabilities (abilities) of both the hierarchy of social groups (from the family to the state as a whole and even at the international level), and the student.

Pedagogical structure

Pedagogy contains sections:

  • general fundamentals of pedagogy,
  • didactics (learning theory),
  • education theory,
  • preschool pedagogy,
  • school science,
  • higher education pedagogy,
  • history of pedagogy,
  • professional pedagogy,
  • religious pedagogy,
  • comparative pedagogy,
  • military pedagogy,
  • special pedagogy (oligophrenopedagogy, deaf pedagogy, typhlopedagogy, etc.).

Publications

  • Andreev V.I. Pedagogy. Training course for creative self-development. 2nd ed.- Kazan, 2000. - 600 p.
  • Boldyrev N. I., Goncharov N.K., Esipov B. P. and others. Pedagogy. Textbook manual for teachers Inst.- M., 1968.
  • Bondarevskaya E. V., Kulnevich S. V. Pedagogy: personality in humanistic theories and systems of education. Textbook allowance.- R-n/D: Creative Center “Teacher”, 1999. - 560 p.
  • Gavrov S.N. , Nikandrov N.D. Education in the process of socialization of the individual // Bulletin of URAO. - 2008. - No. 5. - P. 21-29.
  • Dewey D. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking. Per. from English- M.: “Perfection”, 1997. - 208 p.
  • Zhuravlev V. I. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences. - M., 1990.
  • Zitser D., Zitser N. Practical pedagogy: the ABC of BUT. - St. Petersburg, “Enlightenment”, 2007.- 287 p.
  • Ilyina T. A. Pedagogy. Textbook for teachers. Inst.- M., 1969.
  • Korczak Ya. Pedagogical heritage. - M.: Pedagogy, 1990. - 272 p. - (Teacher's Library). - ISBN 5-7155-0025-7. (The collection includes the works “How to Love a Child” (the first section is printed with abbreviations) and “Rules of Life. Pedagogy for children and adults.”)
  • Kraevsky V.V. How many teachers do we have? // "Pedagogy". - 1997. - No. 4.
  • Kraevsky V.V. General fundamentals of pedagogy. Textbook for students higher ped. textbook establishments.- M.: "Academy", 2003. - 256 p.
  • Novikov A. M. Foundations of pedagogy. - M.: "EGVES", 2010. - 208 p.
  • Eremin V.A. Desperate pedagogy. M.: Vlados, 2008 (dimensions on the pages of the Pedagogical Museum of A.S. Makarenko from the author), previous edition. books in edition APK and PPRO, M., 2006 [ unreputable source?]
  • Pedagogy. Tutorial. Ed. P.I. Pidkasisty. - M.: Russian Pedagogical Agency, 1995. - 638 p.
  • Pedagogy. Textbook manual for pedagogical students. institutions. Ed. Yu. K. Babansky. - M.: “Enlightenment”, 1983. - 608 p.
  • V. A. Slastonin, I. F. Isaev, A. I. Mishchenko and others. Pedagogy. Textbook for students of pedagogical educational institutions. - M.: “School-Press”, 1997. - 512 p.
  • Pedagogical theories, systems and technologies. Experience in organizing student creativity. Ed. A. V. Khutorskoy. - M.: Publishing house of Moscow Pedagogical University, 1999. - 84 p.
  • Podlasy I. P. Pedagogy. - M.: “Enlightenment”, 1996.
  • Postnikov M. M. A school with a focus on the future. Literary newspaper, March 25, 1987
  • Prokopyev I. I. Pedagogy. Favorite lectures. Uch. manual in 3 parts - Grodno: GrSU Publishing House, 1997. - 114 p.
  • Khutorskoy A.V. Pedagogical innovation: methodology, theory, practice. Scientific publication.- M.: Publishing house UC DO, 2005. - 222 p.
  • Morozov V.I.- Pedagogy - “Enlightenment”
  • Pedagogy by O. Gazman and V. Matveev. Newspaper “First of September”, No. 52/2000
  • Yurkevich P. D. Sacred pedagogy of the heart. - Lugansk: Leningrad State Pedagogical University, 2000. - P. 70.
  • Yurkevich P. D. About Christianity and education. - Lugansk: Leningrad State Pedagogical University, 2005. - P. 100.

see also

Notes

Links

Pedagogy in Wikiquote
in Wikisource
Pedagogy on Wikimedia Commons
  • Onishchenko E. V.“Round table” “Modern pedagogy: illusions and realities” // Knowledge. Understanding. Skill. - 2005. - No. 1. - P. 181-185.
  • Klimenko V.V. How to raise a child prodigy. A critical look at modern pedagogy.

Wikimedia Foundation.

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  • Synonyms
  • Sandhi

Lexical gap

    See what “Pedagogy” is in other dictionaries: PEDAGOGY - (Greek). The science or doctrine of the education and training of youth. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. PEDAGOGY Greek. The science of education and training of youth. Explanation of 25,000 foreign words included in... ...

    Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language pedagogy - – the science of raising children. ... Pedagogy, in essence, covers several completely separate areas of knowledge. On the one hand, since it poses the problem of child development, it is included in the cycle of biological ones, i.e. ... ...



Dictionary L.S. Vygotsky
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